Cognitive Function, Working Memory
Conditions
Keywords
Park Golf, fNIRS, Older Adults, Prefrontal Cortex, Randomized Controlled Trial, Working Memory, N-back Task, Community-Dwelling Older Adults
Brief summary
This study investigates whether a park golf program can improve working memory and prefrontal cortex activity in community-dwelling older adults. A total of 36 older adults (aged 65-85) were randomly assigned to either a park golf group or a health education group. The park golf group participated in a supervised park golf program (2 sessions per week for 4 weeks, 60 minutes per session), while the health education group attended lectures on healthy aging topics such as nutrition and fall prevention on the same schedule. Before and after the intervention, participants completed cognitive and physical assessments, including the Korean Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA-K), the Timed Up and Go test, and a spatial working memory task (N-back) performed while brain activity in the prefrontal cortex was measured using functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS), a non-invasive, radiation-free imaging method. The findings may help establish evidence for community-based physical activity programs, such as park golf, as a strategy to support cognitive health in older adults.
Interventions
BEHAVIORALPark Golf Program
A structured, supervised park golf program consisting of 8 sessions over 4 weeks (2 sessions/week, 60 minutes/session). Each session included a 10-minute warm-up, 40 minutes of park golf technique instruction and practice, and a 10-minute cool-down, conducted at an outdoor community park under the supervision of trained instructors.
BEHAVIORALHealth Education Program
A structured health education program consisting of 8 sessions over 4 weeks (2 sessions per week, 60 minutes per session), covering topics such as senior health management, nutrition, fall prevention, and chronic disease management, conducted at a community facility.
Sponsors
Gwangju Health University
Study design
Allocation
RANDOMIZED
Intervention model
PARALLEL
Primary purpose
PREVENTION
Masking
SINGLE (Outcomes Assessor)
Intervention model description
Participants were randomly allocated to one of two parallel groups: a park golf intervention group or a health education control group.
Eligibility
Sex/Gender
ALL
Age
65 Years to 85 Years
Healthy volunteers
Yes
Inclusion criteria
* Community-dwelling older adults aged 65 to 85 years, living independently (excluding those residing in nursing facilities or hospitalized) * Korean version of the Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA-K) score of 23 or higher (normal cognitive function range) * Able to walk independently and possess the basic functional capacity required to participate in park golf * No experience with park golf, or no regular participation in park golf within the past 6 months * Voluntary written informed consent to participate in the study
Exclusion criteria
* History of severe neurological disease (e.g., Parkinson's disease, stroke, dementia) or psychiatric disease (e.g., major depressive disorder, schizophrenia) * Scalp disease, skull abnormality, or history of craniotomy that could affect fNIRS measurement * Currently taking medications affecting cognitive function (e.g., anticholinergics, antipsychotics) * Regular participation in high-intensity exercise programs 3 or more times per week * Physician-prescribed restriction on physical activity * Severe visual or auditory impairment that would make assessment difficult, even with correction * Left-handedness (excluded to control for hemispheric dominance in fNIRS measurement)
Design outcomes
Primary
| Measure | Time frame | Description |
|---|---|---|
| Change in Prefrontal Cortex Activation (Beta-value of HbO Concentration) | Change from baseline to 4 weeks (post-intervention) | Change in oxygenated hemoglobin (HbO) concentration in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC), measured as a beta-value derived from general linear model (GLM) analysis during the spatial N-back task, using functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS). |
Secondary
| Measure | Time frame | Description |
|---|---|---|
| Working Memory Performance (Spatial N-back Task) | Change from baseline to 4 weeks (post-intervention) | Reaction time and accuracy on the 2-back condition of a spatial N-back task, assessing spatial working memory. Task administered using E-Prime 3.0 software with 1-back and 2-back conditions presented in alternating blocks. |
| Dynamic Balance (Timed Up and Go Test) | Change from baseline to 4 weeks (post-intervention) | Time (in seconds) taken to rise from a chair, walk 3 meters, turn around, and return to sitting, assessing dynamic balance and functional mobility. |
| Cognitive-Motor Dual-Task Performance (TUG with Naming Animals) | Change from baseline to 4 weeks (post-intervention) | Performance on the TUG test while simultaneously naming as many animals as possible, assessing integrated cognitive-motor function. Measures include dual-task time, dual-task cost, number of animals named, and animals named per 10 seconds. |
| Global Cognitive Function (Korean Montreal Cognitive Assessment) | Change from baseline to 4 weeks (post-intervention) | Overall cognitive function assessed using MoCA-K, covering visuospatial/executive function, naming, attention, language, abstraction, delayed recall, and orientation. Total score range 0-30. |
Countries
South Korea
Contacts
PRINCIPAL_INVESTIGATOREun-Sang Lee, PhD
Gwangju Health University
Outcome results
None listed