Healthy Adult Participants
Conditions
Keywords
tennis, tennis performance, multiple object tracking, mental imagery, executive functions, cognitive control, working memory, anxiety, heart rate variability, electrodermal activity
Brief summary
The goal of this clinical trial was to evaluate whether multiple object tracking and mental imagery training affect tennis performance, executive functions, anxiety, and psychophysiological variables in university students enrolled in an elective tennis course. The main questions it aimed to answer were: Do multiple object tracking and mental imagery training improve tennis performance? Do multiple object tracking and mental imagery training affect executive functions, anxiety, and psychophysiological responses? Researchers compared participants who received multiple object tracking training or mental imagery training with a control group that continued their regular tennis classes without additional training. Participants: Completed a pre-test assessment of tennis performance, imagery ability, executive functions, anxiety, and psychophysiological variables. Were assigned to a multiple object tracking, mental imagery, or control group based on their tennis performance scores. Completed multiple object tracking or mental imagery training for five consecutive days over one week in addition to their regular tennis classes. Completed post-test assessments using tennis performance, cognitive, anxiety, and psychophysiological measures.
Detailed description
This study investigated the effects of short-term multiple object tracking and mental imagery training on tennis performance, executive functions, anxiety, and psychophysiological responses in university students participating in an elective tennis course. The study used a three-group, pre-test/post-test design. Following an initial assessment period, participants were allocated to one of three groups based on their baseline tennis performance: a multiple object tracking group, a mental imagery group, or a control group. All participants participated in their regular tennis course. In addition, participants assigned to the multiple object tracking group received computerized multiple object tracking training, while participants in the mental imagery group completed a structured mental imagery training program. The control group continued their regular tennis course without receiving either additional training program. The study included assessments of tennis performance, imagery ability, cognitive control, working memory, anxiety, heart rate variability, and electrodermal activity. Psychophysiological measures were collected both at rest and during executive function assessment. Pre-test assessments were conducted before the experimental training, and the same outcome assessments were repeated following completion of the training period. The study was designed to examine whether brief cognitive training approaches, specifically multiple object tracking and mental imagery, could produce changes in tennis performance and related cognitive, psychological, and psychophysiological responses.
Interventions
OTHERMultiple Object Tracking Training
Participants assigned to the Multiple Object Tracking (MOT) group completed a custom-developed, computer-based MOT training program in addition to their regular tennis training. The program was designed to train sustained attention, working memory, and visuospatial tracking. Participants viewed multiple moving spherical objects on a computer screen and were instructed to track a designated subset of target objects while ignoring distractors and identify the target objects at the end of each trial. The researcher could adjust the number of objects, object color, object size, movement speed, and tracking duration. The object movement speed was fixed at 300 pixels per second and the objects were displayed in green. Each session consisted of 140 trials organized into five sets of 28 trials. Each trial included 6 seconds of tracking followed by 6 seconds of rest, with a 2-minute rest period between sets. The active tracking time was approximately 14 minutes and the total session duration wa
Participants assigned to the Mental Imagery (MI) group completed five individual mental imagery training sessions, one session per day for five consecutive days. Each session lasted approximately 30 minutes and was conducted by an experienced clinical psychologist. The training protocol was structured according to the PETTLEP model and incorporated kinesthetic, sensory, and emotional components of motor imagery. Each session consisted of four phases: a 5-minute preparatory phase involving breathing exercises and a body scan; a 5-minute action-observation phase in which participants watched video footage of a professional tennis player performing forehand and backhand strokes, with specific technical aspects highlighted; a 15-minute imagery phase in which participants mentally rehearsed successful and accurate performance of the Dyer Wall Test using both internal and external perspectives; and a 5-minute evaluation phase in which participants rated the vividness and realism of their ima
Sponsors
Halic University
Study design
Allocation
NON_RANDOMIZED
Intervention model
PARALLEL
Primary purpose
OTHER
Masking
NONE
Eligibility
Sex/Gender
MALE
Age
18 Years to 25 Years
Healthy volunteers
Yes
Inclusion criteria
* Aged 18-25 years * Enrolled in the Faculty of Sport Sciences * Actively participating in the elective tennis course * Obtaining a valid score on the Dyer Wall Test pre-test administered after the course's first six weeks * No prior regular training or competitive background in tennis * Not a licensed or national-level tennis athlete * Not concurrently enrolled in any other mental training program * Voluntary consent to participate * No health condition precluding participation
Exclusion criteria
* Incomplete or improperly completed personal information forms * A prior competitive tennis background, tennis license, or tournament participation identified after enrollment * Voluntary withdrawal at any stage * Failure to complete the full testing protocol * Injury occurring during the study that prevents continued participation
Design outcomes
Primary
| Measure | Time frame | Description |
|---|---|---|
| Tennis Performance-Dyer Wall Test | Baseline (pre-test) to post-test, approximately 3 weeks | Tennis performance was assessed using the Dyer Wall Test, a wall-based tennis performance test evaluating participants' ability to perform repeated forehand and backhand strokes against a wall. Performance was quantified based on the number of successful returns according to the standardized scoring procedure of the test. |
Secondary
| Measure | Time frame | Description |
|---|---|---|
| Cognitive Control-Flanker Task | Baseline (pre-test) to post-test, approximately 3 weeks | Cognitive control was assessed using a computerized Flanker Task. Performance was evaluated based on reaction time and accuracy in responding to target stimuli while inhibiting responses to distracting stimuli. |
| Working Memory-Corsi Block Test | Baseline (pre-test) to post-test, approximately 3 weeks | Working memory was assessed using the Corsi Block Test, which measures visuospatial short-term and working memory capacity based on participants' ability to reproduce sequences of spatially presented stimuli. |
| Anxiety-Revised Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2 | Baseline (pre-test) to post-test, approximately 3 weeks | Competitive state anxiety was assessed using the Revised Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2. The inventory consists of 14 items rated on a 4-point Likert scale. Total scores range from 14 to 56, with higher scores indicating higher levels of competitive state anxiety. |
| Heart Rate Variability | Baseline (pre-test) to post-test, approximately 3 weeks | Heart rate variability was assessed using the root mean square of successive differences (RMSSD) derived from beat-to-beat heart rate recordings obtained using a Polar H10 heart rate sensor. Measurements were obtained at rest and during the cognitive assessment tasks. |
| Electrodermal Activity | Baseline (pre-test) to post-test, approximately 3 weeks | Electrodermal activity was assessed using a Shimmer 3 GSR+ device. Skin conductance was recorded at rest and during the cognitive assessment tasks as an indicator of sympathetic nervous system activity. |
| Imagery Ability - MIQ-3 | Baseline (pre-test) to post-test, approximately 3 weeks | Motor imagery ability was assessed using the Movement Imagery Questionnaire-3, which evaluates participants' ability to internal visual, external visual and kinesthetic imagery of the movement. The questionnaire consists of 12 movement items rated on a 7-point scale, with total scores ranging from 12 to 84. Higher scores indicate greater motor imagery ability. |
Countries
Turkey (Türkiye)
Outcome results
None listed