Appetite, Energy Intake, Healthy Adult Male
Conditions
Keywords
Cold-ambient air exercise, Thermoregulation, Appetite, Food preference, Crossover study, Cold exposure, Energy Intake, Cold-Water Exercise, Healthy Adult Male
Brief summary
This study investigated whether exercising in cold environments affects appetite, energy intake, and food preference compared with exercising in thermoneutral conditions. Eleven healthy males completed five laboratory trials as part of a crossover study: a control trial and four exercise trials performed in cold-water (16°C), thermoneutral water (35°C), cold-ambient air (6°C), and thermoneutral ambient air (26°C). Appetite responses were assessed throughout each trial, and participants were provided with an ad libitum meal after exercise to measure energy intake. Food preference was assessed using the Leeds Food Preference Questionnaire. The study aimed to determine whether environmental temperature and exercise medium influence acute post-exercise eating behaviour.
Detailed description
Exercise performed in cold environments may influence thermoregulatory responses and subsequent eating behaviour differently compared with exercise performed under thermoneutral conditions. Previous research suggests that cold exposure may increase post-exercise energy intake; however, the influence of environmental temperature and exercise medium (water versus air) on appetite regulation and food-related behaviour remains unclear. This study used a randomised repeated-measures crossover design to investigate the effects of cold and thermoneutral exercise conditions on appetite, energy intake, and food preference in healthy males. Eleven healthy males completed five laboratory trials: a no-exercise control condition and four experimental exercise conditions consisting of 30 minutes of arm-leg rowing exercise performed in cold-water (16°C), thermoneutral water (35°C), cold-ambient air (6°C), and thermoneutral ambient air (26°C). Trials were separated by a minimum seven-day washout period. Appetite responses were assessed using visual analogue scales throughout each trial. Following exercise, participants consumed an ad libitum meal to assess acute post-exercise energy intake. Food preference responses, including food appeal and preference measures, were assessed using the Leeds Food Preference Questionnaire. The primary objective was to determine whether environmental temperature and exercise medium influence post-exercise energy intake. Secondary objectives were to examine effects on subjective appetite and food preference measures. This study provides insight into how exercising in different thermal environments may influence immediate eating behaviour following exercise.
Interventions
OTHERControl Condition
Resting control condition with no exercise exposure.
OTHERCold-Water Exercise
Arm-leg rowing exercise performed in 16°C water.
OTHERThermoneutral Water Exercise
Arm-leg rowing exercise performed in 35°C water.
OTHERCold-Ambient Air Exercise
Arm-leg rowing exercise performed in 6°C ambient air.
OTHERThermoneutral Ambient Air Exercise
Arm-leg rowing exercise performed in 26°C ambient air.
Sponsors
Coventry University
Study design
Allocation
RANDOMIZED
Intervention model
CROSSOVER
Primary purpose
BASIC_SCIENCE
Masking
NONE
Intervention model description
Participants completed five laboratory trials in a repeated-measures crossover design. All participants first completed a control condition, followed by four experimental exercise conditions completed in a randomised order: cold-water exercise (16°C), thermoneutral water exercise (35°C), cold-ambient air exercise (6°C), and thermoneutral ambient air exercise (26°C). Each participant completed all conditions, with trials separated by a minimum seven-day washout period.
Eligibility
Sex/Gender
MALE
Age
18 Years to 65 Years
Healthy volunteers
Yes
Inclusion criteria
* Healthy males aged 18-65 years * Living in the UK * Recreationally active and meeting current physical activity guidelines * Body mass stable (\<2 kg change) during the 3 months prior to the study * Able to complete moderate-intensity arm-leg rowing exercise * Able to tolerate the cold-water familiarisation/tolerance test * Low cognitive restraint score on the Three-Factor Eating Questionnaire Revised * 18-item (TFEQ-R18) * Able to consume the standardised breakfast and ad libitum pasta meal provided during the study * Able to provide written informed consent * Willing to complete study questionnaires and experimental assessments * Willing to undergo core temperature measurement via self-inserted rectal thermistor and body composition assessment
Exclusion criteria
* Diagnosed cardiovascular, pulmonary, metabolic, or renal disease, or symptoms suggestive of these conditions * Any contraindication to moderate-intensity exercise * Conditions increasing risk during cold exposure, including history of cold-induced asthma, Raynaud's phenomenon, cold urticaria, or other non-freezing cold injuries * Cold-habituated individuals (e.g., regular cold-water swimmers) * Current medication known to alter body weight or metabolism * Smoking, drug misuse, or alcohol abuse * Current musculoskeletal injury or condition that could be worsened by exercise * History of eating disorders or restrained eating behaviour * Shift work or sleep deprivation affecting study participation * Unable to fast before experimental sessions * Unable to tolerate the cold-water familiarisation/tolerance procedure * Unable to consume the foods provided as part of the standardised breakfast or ad libitum meal due to dietary restrictions or allergies * Unable to commit to study requirements
Design outcomes
Primary
| Measure | Time frame | Description |
|---|---|---|
| Post-exercise ad libitum energy intake | 30 minutes after completion of the 30-minute experimental/control condition. | Energy intake consumed during an ad libitum homogeneous pasta meal provided after each 30-minute experimental/control condition. The mass of food consumed was determined by subtracting the mass of food remaining (including leftovers on the plate and cutlery). Absolute energy intake was calculated using the nutritional information provided by the food manufacturer. |
| Subjective appetite responses | Before and after breakfast, before the 30-minute experimental/control condition, during the 30-minute experimental/control condition, and before and after the ad libitum meal. | Subjective appetite responses including hunger, fullness, satisfaction, and prospective food consumption assessed using a 100-mm Visual Analogue Scale (VAS) ranging from 0 mm (not at all) to 100 mm (extremely). Higher scores indicate greater subjective appetite sensations. |
| Food preference and food reward responses | 15 minutes after completion of each 30-minute experimental/control trial and 15-minutes before the ad libitum meal. | Food preference and reward responses assessed using the Leeds Food Preference Questionnaire (LFPQ). Outcomes include explicit liking, explicit wanting, implicit wanting, and fat and sweet appeal bias scores. Higher scores indicate greater preference or reward response for the respective food category (fat or sweet). |
Secondary
| Measure | Time frame | Description |
|---|---|---|
| Core body temperature | During the 30-minute experimental/control condition and during the 60-minute post-exposure recovery period. | Changes in core body temperature measured continuously using a rectal thermistor during and after each experimental/control condition. |
| Energy expenditure | During the 30-minute experimental/control condition. | Energy expenditure during the exercise/control condition estimated from breath-by-breath oxygen consumption and carbon dioxide production using indirect calorimetry. |
| Skin temperature and mean body temperature responses | 5-minutes before and 5-minutes after the 30-minute experimental/control condition. | Skin temperature was measured at four sites (chest, bicep, thigh, and calf) using skin temperature probes. Mean skin temperature and mean body temperature were calculated to assess changes in peripheral and overall thermal status. |
| Thermal sensation and shivering responses | During the 30-minute experimental/control condition at 10-minute intervals. | Thermal sensation was assessed using the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) 7-point Thermal Sensation Scale, ranging from -3 (cold) to +3 (hot), where 0 indicates thermal neutrality. Shivering responses were assessed using the Bedside Shivering Assessment Scale (BSAS) ranging from 0 (no shivering) to 3 (severe shivering), with higher scores indicating greater shivering severity. |
Countries
United Kingdom
Outcome results
None listed