Vaping
Conditions
Brief summary
The goal of this clinical trial is to use crowdsourcing to test the effects of a message source (expert and peer) and message presentation types (one-sided and two-sided) to identify the optimal message type for young adults who vape and do not vape.
Interventions
OTHERExpert, one-sided
Participants will view a brief description of an expert source and see one-sided e-cigarette education messages.
OTHERExpert, two-sided
Participants will view a brief description of an expert source and see two-sided e-cigarette education messages.
OTHERPeer, one-sided
Participants will view a brief description of a peer source and see one-sided e-cigarette education messages.
OTHERPeer, two-sided
Participants will view a brief description of a peer source and see two-sided e-cigarette education messages.
Sponsors
National Cancer Institute (NCI)
University of Massachusetts, Worcester
Study design
Allocation
RANDOMIZED
Intervention model
FACTORIAL
Primary purpose
HEALTH_SERVICES_RESEARCH
Masking
NONE
Eligibility
Sex/Gender
ALL
Age
18 Years to 24 Years
Healthy volunteers
Yes
Inclusion criteria
* US residents ages 18-24 * Fluent in English * Reporting either vaping in the past 30 days or not having vaped in the past 30 days but susceptible to vaping
Exclusion criteria
* Age less than 18 or above 24 * Not fluent in English * Not a member of partnering crowdsourcing behavioral research platform conducting the study
Design outcomes
Primary
| Measure | Time frame | Description |
|---|---|---|
| Message Acceptance | After exposure to each messages (approximately up to 20 minutes total), measured during a single study visit on Day 1. | Participants' self-reported message acceptance were measured by using a five-point Likert scale using five items assessing whether participants thought the message was worth remembering, grabbed their attention, powerful, convincing, and meaningful on a scale from 1 (Strongly disagree) to 5 (Strongly agree). Items were summed and averaged to create a single composite score, and this was done for each arm for each vaping status. Higher scores indicate more more message acceptance, therefore better outcomes. |
| Harm Perceptions | After exposure to each messages (approximately up to 20 minutes total), measured during a single study visit on Day 1. | Harm perceptions was measured by a single item e-cigarette harm perceptions question assessing participants' perceived absolute harm of e-cigarette use on a scale from 1 (Not at all harmful) to 10 (Very harmful). Items were summed and averaged to create a single composite score. This was done for each vaping status (current vapers and susceptible non-vapers). Higher scores indicate greater vaping harm perceptions, therefore indicating better outcome. |
Secondary
| Measure | Time frame | Description |
|---|---|---|
| Message Liking | After exposure to each messages (approximately up to 20 minutes total), measured during a single study visit on Day 1. | Message liking will be measured by a single-item liking of the message on scale from 1 (Dislike very much) to 5 (Like very much). Items were summed and averaged to create a single composite score. This was done for each vaping status (current vapers and susceptible non-vapers). Higher scores indicate greater message liking, therefore indicating better outcome. |
| Source Trust | After exposure to each messages (approximately up to 20 minutes total), measured during a single study visit on Day 1. | Source trust was measured by a single-item trust in health information source questionnaire, such as trust in source about vaping information on a scale from 1(Not at all) to 5 (Very much so). Items were summed and averaged to create a single composite score. This was done for each vaping status (current vapers and susceptible non-vapers). Higher scores indicate greater source trust, therefore indicating better outcome |
| Negative Cognition | After exposure to each messages (approximately up to 20 minutes total), measured during a single study visit on Day 1. | Negative cognition was measured by six-item reactance questionnaire, such as perceptions of messages being manipulative, misleading, distorted, overblown, exaggerated, and overstated on a scale from 1 (Strongly disagree) to 5 (Strongly agree). Higher scores indicate greater negative cognition, indicating worse outcome. |
| Behavioral Intentions to Vape or Try Vaping | After exposure to all messages (approximately up to 45 minutes), measured during a single study visit on Day 1. | Participants' vaping or vaping trial intentions were measured by using a 3 subscale items assessing participants' intentions to vape: soon/anytime during the next year/would use offered by one of their best friends, on a scale from 1 (Definitely not) to 5 (Definitely yes). Items were summed and averaged to create a single composite score. This was done for each vaping status (current vapers and susceptible non-vapers). Higher scores indicate greater vaping intentions, therefore indicating worse outcome. |
| Attitudes | After exposure to all messages (approximately up to 45 minutes), measured during a single study visit on Day 1. | Participants' self-reported vaping attitudes were measured by using a five-point bipolar scale using 7 subscale items assessing whether participants thought vaping was enjoyable, healthy, safe, fun, smart, cool, and attractive on a scale from 1 (negative attitudes) to 5 (positive attitudes). Items were summed and averaged to create a single composite score, and this was done for each arm for each vaping status. Higher scores indicate more positive e-cigarette attitudes, therefore worse outcomes. |
| Message Anger | After exposure to each messages (approximately up to 20 minutes total), measured during a single study visit on Day 1. | Message anger was measured by four item message anger question assessing the extent to which the messages made participants feel irritated, angry, annoyed, and aggravated on a scale from 1 (not at all) to 5 (very much). Items were summed and averaged. This was done for each vaping status (current vapers and susceptible non-vapers). Higher scores indicate greater anger toward messages, indicating worse outcomes. |
Countries
United States
Participant flow
Pre-assignment details
n=109 data were removed from analysis; if 1) study duration was less than the average study duration (i.e., 8 minutes; n=44, if the participant age exceeded the eligible age (n=19); and if non-vapers did not meet the susceptibility criteria (n=46).
Participants by arm
| Arm | Count |
|---|---|
| Expert, One-Sided Participants first saw a brief description of a expert source. Then they viewed an e-cigarette message that discussed only the health harms of e-cigarette use. This sequence was repeated 18 times during a single study visit. | 191 |
| Expert, Two-Sided Participants first saw a brief description of an expert source. They then viewed an e-cigarette message that acknowledged both the potential benefits of e-cigarette use and the associated health risks. This sequence was repeated 18 times during a single study visit. | 197 |
| Peer, One-Sided Participants first saw a brief description of a peer source. They then viewed an e-cigarette message that discussed only the health harms of e-cigarette use. This sequence was repeated 18 times during a single study visit. | 203 |
| Peer, Two-Sided Participants first saw a brief description of an peer source. They then viewed an e-cigarette message that acknowledged both the potential benefits of e-cigarette use and the associated health risks. This sequence was repeated 18 times during a single study visit. | 194 |
| Total | 785 |
Baseline characteristics
| Characteristic | Expert, One-Sided | Expert, Two-Sided | Peer, One-Sided | Peer, Two-Sided | Total |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Age, Continuous | 22.04 years STANDARD_DEVIATION 1.79 | 21.78 years STANDARD_DEVIATION 1.77 | 21.88 years STANDARD_DEVIATION 1.69 | 21.85 years STANDARD_DEVIATION 1.83 | 21.89 years STANDARD_DEVIATION 1.77 |
| Ethnicity (NIH/OMB) Hispanic or Latino | 23 Participants | 24 Participants | 29 Participants | 26 Participants | 102 Participants |
| Ethnicity (NIH/OMB) Not Hispanic or Latino | 168 Participants | 173 Participants | 174 Participants | 168 Participants | 683 Participants |
| Ethnicity (NIH/OMB) Unknown or Not Reported | 0 Participants | 0 Participants | 0 Participants | 0 Participants | 0 Participants |
| Race (NIH/OMB) American Indian or Alaska Native | 1 Participants | 0 Participants | 2 Participants | 2 Participants | 5 Participants |
| Race (NIH/OMB) Asian | 21 Participants | 20 Participants | 18 Participants | 22 Participants | 81 Participants |
| Race (NIH/OMB) Black or African American | 43 Participants | 50 Participants | 49 Participants | 53 Participants | 195 Participants |
| Race (NIH/OMB) More than one race | 10 Participants | 16 Participants | 8 Participants | 13 Participants | 47 Participants |
| Race (NIH/OMB) Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander | 1 Participants | 0 Participants | 1 Participants | 1 Participants | 3 Participants |
| Race (NIH/OMB) Unknown or Not Reported | 18 Participants | 15 Participants | 27 Participants | 15 Participants | 75 Participants |
| Race (NIH/OMB) White | 97 Participants | 96 Participants | 98 Participants | 88 Participants | 379 Participants |
| Region of Enrollment United States | 191 participants | 197 participants | 203 participants | 194 participants | 785 participants |
| Sex/Gender, Customized Female | 89 Participants | 101 Participants | 92 Participants | 88 Participants | 370 Participants |
| Sex/Gender, Customized Male | 93 Participants | 83 Participants | 101 Participants | 92 Participants | 369 Participants |
| Sex/Gender, Customized Others | 9 Participants | 13 Participants | 10 Participants | 14 Participants | 46 Participants |
| Vaping status Current vapers | 103 Participants | 112 Participants | 115 Participants | 100 Participants | 430 Participants |
| Vaping status Others | 9 Participants | 11 Participants | 14 Participants | 12 Participants | 46 Participants |
| Vaping status Susceptible non-vapers | 79 Participants | 74 Participants | 74 Participants | 82 Participants | 309 Participants |
Adverse events
| Event type | EG000 affected / at risk | EG001 affected / at risk | EG002 affected / at risk | EG003 affected / at risk |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| deaths Total, all-cause mortality | 0 / 191 | 0 / 197 | 0 / 203 | 0 / 194 |
| other Total, other adverse events | 0 / 191 | 0 / 197 | 0 / 203 | 0 / 194 |
| serious Total, serious adverse events | 0 / 191 | 0 / 197 | 0 / 203 | 0 / 194 |
Outcome results
Primary
Harm Perceptions
Harm perceptions was measured by a single item e-cigarette harm perceptions question assessing participants' perceived absolute harm of e-cigarette use on a scale from 1 (Not at all harmful) to 10 (Very harmful). Items were summed and averaged to create a single composite score. This was done for each vaping status (current vapers and susceptible non-vapers). Higher scores indicate greater vaping harm perceptions, therefore indicating better outcome.
Time frame: After exposure to each messages (approximately up to 20 minutes total), measured during a single study visit on Day 1.
Population: The data were stratified based on participants' vaping status (Current vapers and Susceptible non-vapers). The Number of Participants Analyzed for each row reflects the actual number of participants within that vaping status group who were included in the analysis. The Overall Number of Participants Analyzed represents the total number of both subgroups. Any differences have been clarified to specify participant numbers at the row level.
| Arm | Measure | Group | Value (MEAN) | Dispersion |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Expert, One-Sided | Harm Perceptions | Current vapers | 7.39 units on a scale | Standard Deviation 0.2 |
| Expert, One-Sided | Harm Perceptions | Susceptible non-vapers | 8.05 units on a scale | Standard Deviation 0.19 |
| Expert, Two-Sided | Harm Perceptions | Susceptible non-vapers | 8.04 units on a scale | Standard Deviation 0.2 |
| Expert, Two-Sided | Harm Perceptions | Current vapers | 7.45 units on a scale | Standard Deviation 0.19 |
| Peer, One-Sided | Harm Perceptions | Current vapers | 7.27 units on a scale | Standard Deviation 0.19 |
| Peer, One-Sided | Harm Perceptions | Susceptible non-vapers | 8.04 units on a scale | Standard Deviation 0.2 |
| Peer, Two-Sided | Harm Perceptions | Current vapers | 7.44 units on a scale | Standard Deviation 0.2 |
| Peer, Two-Sided | Harm Perceptions | Susceptible non-vapers | 7.82 units on a scale | Standard Deviation 0.19 |
Primary
Message Acceptance
Participants' self-reported message acceptance were measured by using a five-point Likert scale using five items assessing whether participants thought the message was worth remembering, grabbed their attention, powerful, convincing, and meaningful on a scale from 1 (Strongly disagree) to 5 (Strongly agree). Items were summed and averaged to create a single composite score, and this was done for each arm for each vaping status. Higher scores indicate more more message acceptance, therefore better outcomes.
Time frame: After exposure to each messages (approximately up to 20 minutes total), measured during a single study visit on Day 1.
Population: The data were stratified based on participants' vaping status (Current vapers and Susceptible non-vapers). The Number of Participants Analyzed for each row reflects the actual number of participants within that vaping status group who were included in the analysis. The Overall Number of Participants Analyzed represents the total number of both subgroups. Any differences have been clarified to specify participant numbers at the row level.
| Arm | Measure | Group | Value (MEAN) | Dispersion |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Expert, One-Sided | Message Acceptance | Current vapers | 3.01 units on a scale | Standard Deviation 0.01 |
| Expert, One-Sided | Message Acceptance | Susceptible non-vapers | 2.94 units on a scale | Standard Deviation 0.09 |
| Expert, Two-Sided | Message Acceptance | Susceptible non-vapers | 2.77 units on a scale | Standard Deviation 0.03 |
| Expert, Two-Sided | Message Acceptance | Current vapers | 3.00 units on a scale | Standard Deviation 0.01 |
| Peer, One-Sided | Message Acceptance | Current vapers | 2.88 units on a scale | Standard Deviation 0.01 |
| Peer, One-Sided | Message Acceptance | Susceptible non-vapers | 2.77 units on a scale | Standard Deviation 0.09 |
| Peer, Two-Sided | Message Acceptance | Current vapers | 2.76 units on a scale | Standard Deviation 0.01 |
| Peer, Two-Sided | Message Acceptance | Susceptible non-vapers | 2.72 units on a scale | Standard Deviation 0.09 |
Secondary
Attitudes
Participants' self-reported vaping attitudes were measured by using a five-point bipolar scale using 7 subscale items assessing whether participants thought vaping was enjoyable, healthy, safe, fun, smart, cool, and attractive on a scale from 1 (negative attitudes) to 5 (positive attitudes). Items were summed and averaged to create a single composite score, and this was done for each arm for each vaping status. Higher scores indicate more positive e-cigarette attitudes, therefore worse outcomes.
Time frame: After exposure to all messages (approximately up to 45 minutes), measured during a single study visit on Day 1.
Population: The data were stratified based on participants' vaping status (Current vapers and Susceptible non-vapers). The Number of Participants Analyzed for each row reflects the actual number of participants within that vaping status group who were included in the analysis. The Overall Number of Participants Analyzed represents the total number of both subgroups. Any differences have been clarified to specify participant numbers at the row level.
| Arm | Measure | Group | Value (MEAN) | Dispersion |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Expert, One-Sided | Attitudes | Current vapers | 2.57 units on a scale | Standard Deviation 0.76 |
| Expert, One-Sided | Attitudes | Susceptible non-vapers | 1.51 units on a scale | Standard Deviation 0.81 |
| Expert, Two-Sided | Attitudes | Susceptible non-vapers | 1.53 units on a scale | Standard Deviation 0.94 |
| Expert, Two-Sided | Attitudes | Current vapers | 2.66 units on a scale | Standard Deviation 0.81 |
| Peer, One-Sided | Attitudes | Current vapers | 2.73 units on a scale | Standard Deviation 0.83 |
| Peer, One-Sided | Attitudes | Susceptible non-vapers | 1.41 units on a scale | Standard Deviation 0.72 |
| Peer, Two-Sided | Attitudes | Current vapers | 2.61 units on a scale | Standard Deviation 0.8 |
| Peer, Two-Sided | Attitudes | Susceptible non-vapers | 1.33 units on a scale | Standard Deviation 0.59 |
Secondary
Behavioral Intentions to Vape or Try Vaping
Participants' vaping or vaping trial intentions were measured by using a 3 subscale items assessing participants' intentions to vape: soon/anytime during the next year/would use offered by one of their best friends, on a scale from 1 (Definitely not) to 5 (Definitely yes). Items were summed and averaged to create a single composite score. This was done for each vaping status (current vapers and susceptible non-vapers). Higher scores indicate greater vaping intentions, therefore indicating worse outcome.
Time frame: After exposure to all messages (approximately up to 45 minutes), measured during a single study visit on Day 1.
Population: The data were stratified based on participants' vaping status (Current vapers and Susceptible non-vapers). The Number of Participants Analyzed for each row reflects the actual number of participants within that vaping status group who were included in the analysis. The Overall Number of Participants Analyzed represents the total number of both subgroups. Any differences have been clarified to specify participant numbers at the row level.
| Arm | Measure | Group | Value (MEAN) | Dispersion |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Expert, One-Sided | Behavioral Intentions to Vape or Try Vaping | Current vapers | 3.08 units on a scale | Standard Deviation 1.1 |
| Expert, One-Sided | Behavioral Intentions to Vape or Try Vaping | Susceptible non-vapers | 1.51 units on a scale | Standard Deviation 0.81 |
| Expert, Two-Sided | Behavioral Intentions to Vape or Try Vaping | Susceptible non-vapers | 1.53 units on a scale | Standard Deviation 0.94 |
| Expert, Two-Sided | Behavioral Intentions to Vape or Try Vaping | Current vapers | 2.88 units on a scale | Standard Deviation 1.14 |
| Peer, One-Sided | Behavioral Intentions to Vape or Try Vaping | Current vapers | 3.05 units on a scale | Standard Deviation 1.23 |
| Peer, One-Sided | Behavioral Intentions to Vape or Try Vaping | Susceptible non-vapers | 1.41 units on a scale | Standard Deviation 0.72 |
| Peer, Two-Sided | Behavioral Intentions to Vape or Try Vaping | Current vapers | 3.07 units on a scale | Standard Deviation 1.15 |
| Peer, Two-Sided | Behavioral Intentions to Vape or Try Vaping | Susceptible non-vapers | 1.33 units on a scale | Standard Deviation 0.59 |
Secondary
Message Anger
Message anger was measured by four item message anger question assessing the extent to which the messages made participants feel irritated, angry, annoyed, and aggravated on a scale from 1 (not at all) to 5 (very much). Items were summed and averaged. This was done for each vaping status (current vapers and susceptible non-vapers). Higher scores indicate greater anger toward messages, indicating worse outcomes.
Time frame: After exposure to each messages (approximately up to 20 minutes total), measured during a single study visit on Day 1.
Population: The data were stratified based on participants' vaping status (Current vapers and Susceptible non-vapers). The Number of Participants Analyzed for each row reflects the actual number of participants within that vaping status group who were included in the analysis. The Overall Number of Participants Analyzed represents the total number of both subgroups. Any differences have been clarified to specify participant numbers at the row level.
| Arm | Measure | Group | Value (MEAN) | Dispersion |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Expert, One-Sided | Message Anger | Current vapers | 4.07 units on a scale | Standard Deviation 0.08 |
| Expert, One-Sided | Message Anger | Susceptible non-vapers | 4.42 units on a scale | Standard Deviation 0.07 |
| Expert, Two-Sided | Message Anger | Susceptible non-vapers | 4.57 units on a scale | Standard Deviation 0.07 |
| Expert, Two-Sided | Message Anger | Current vapers | 4.12 units on a scale | Standard Deviation 0.08 |
| Peer, One-Sided | Message Anger | Current vapers | 4.19 units on a scale | Standard Deviation 0.08 |
| Peer, One-Sided | Message Anger | Susceptible non-vapers | 4.54 units on a scale | Standard Deviation 0.07 |
| Peer, Two-Sided | Message Anger | Current vapers | 4.05 units on a scale | Standard Deviation 0.08 |
| Peer, Two-Sided | Message Anger | Susceptible non-vapers | 4.56 units on a scale | Standard Deviation 0.07 |
Secondary
Message Liking
Message liking will be measured by a single-item liking of the message on scale from 1 (Dislike very much) to 5 (Like very much). Items were summed and averaged to create a single composite score. This was done for each vaping status (current vapers and susceptible non-vapers). Higher scores indicate greater message liking, therefore indicating better outcome.
Time frame: After exposure to each messages (approximately up to 20 minutes total), measured during a single study visit on Day 1.
Population: The data were stratified based on participants' vaping status (Current vapers and Susceptible non-vapers). The Number of Participants Analyzed for each row reflects the actual number of participants within that vaping status group who were included in the analysis. The Overall Number of Participants Analyzed represents the total number of both subgroups. Any differences have been clarified to specify participant numbers at the row level.
| Arm | Measure | Group | Value (MEAN) | Dispersion |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Expert, One-Sided | Message Liking | Susceptible non-vapers | 3.03 units on a scale | Standard Error 0.07 |
| Expert, One-Sided | Message Liking | Current vapers | 3.08 units on a scale | Standard Error 0.09 |
| Expert, Two-Sided | Message Liking | Susceptible non-vapers | 2.97 units on a scale | Standard Error 0.07 |
| Expert, Two-Sided | Message Liking | Current vapers | 3.05 units on a scale | Standard Error 0.08 |
| Peer, One-Sided | Message Liking | Current vapers | 2.95 units on a scale | Standard Error 0.08 |
| Peer, One-Sided | Message Liking | Susceptible non-vapers | 3.02 units on a scale | Standard Error 0.07 |
| Peer, Two-Sided | Message Liking | Current vapers | 2.97 units on a scale | Standard Error 0.09 |
| Peer, Two-Sided | Message Liking | Susceptible non-vapers | 3.00 units on a scale | Standard Error 0.07 |
Secondary
Negative Cognition
Negative cognition was measured by six-item reactance questionnaire, such as perceptions of messages being manipulative, misleading, distorted, overblown, exaggerated, and overstated on a scale from 1 (Strongly disagree) to 5 (Strongly agree). Higher scores indicate greater negative cognition, indicating worse outcome.
Time frame: After exposure to each messages (approximately up to 20 minutes total), measured during a single study visit on Day 1.
Population: The data were stratified based on participants' vaping status (Current vapers and Susceptible non-vapers). The Number of Participants Analyzed for each row reflects the actual number of participants within that vaping status group who were included in the analysis. The Overall Number of Participants Analyzed represents the total number of both subgroups. Any differences have been clarified to specify participant numbers at the row level.
| Arm | Measure | Group | Value (MEAN) | Dispersion |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Expert, One-Sided | Negative Cognition | Current vapers | 3.79 units on a scale | Standard Deviation 0.08 |
| Expert, One-Sided | Negative Cognition | Susceptible non-vapers | 4.00 units on a scale | Standard Deviation 0.08 |
| Expert, Two-Sided | Negative Cognition | Susceptible non-vapers | 4.17 units on a scale | Standard Deviation 0.09 |
| Expert, Two-Sided | Negative Cognition | Current vapers | 3.81 units on a scale | Standard Deviation 0.08 |
| Peer, One-Sided | Negative Cognition | Current vapers | 3.87 units on a scale | Standard Deviation 0.08 |
| Peer, One-Sided | Negative Cognition | Susceptible non-vapers | 4.12 units on a scale | Standard Deviation 0.09 |
| Peer, Two-Sided | Negative Cognition | Current vapers | 3.78 units on a scale | Standard Deviation 0.08 |
| Peer, Two-Sided | Negative Cognition | Susceptible non-vapers | 4.12 units on a scale | Standard Deviation 0.08 |
Secondary
Source Trust
Source trust was measured by a single-item trust in health information source questionnaire, such as trust in source about vaping information on a scale from 1(Not at all) to 5 (Very much so). Items were summed and averaged to create a single composite score. This was done for each vaping status (current vapers and susceptible non-vapers). Higher scores indicate greater source trust, therefore indicating better outcome
Time frame: After exposure to each messages (approximately up to 20 minutes total), measured during a single study visit on Day 1.
Population: The data were stratified based on participants' vaping status (Current vapers and Susceptible non-vapers). The Number of Participants Analyzed for each row reflects the actual number of participants within that vaping status group who were included in the analysis. The Overall Number of Participants Analyzed represents the total number of both subgroups. Any differences have been clarified to specify participant numbers at the row level.
| Arm | Measure | Group | Value (MEAN) | Dispersion |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Expert, One-Sided | Source Trust | Current vapers | 3.13 units on a scale | Standard Deviation 0.09 |
| Expert, One-Sided | Source Trust | Susceptible non-vapers | 3.27 units on a scale | Standard Deviation 0.08 |
| Expert, Two-Sided | Source Trust | Susceptible non-vapers | 3.32 units on a scale | Standard Deviation 0.08 |
| Expert, Two-Sided | Source Trust | Current vapers | 3.21 units on a scale | Standard Deviation 0.08 |
| Peer, One-Sided | Source Trust | Current vapers | 2.99 units on a scale | Standard Deviation 0.08 |
| Peer, One-Sided | Source Trust | Susceptible non-vapers | 3.01 units on a scale | Standard Deviation 0.08 |
| Peer, Two-Sided | Source Trust | Current vapers | 3.01 units on a scale | Standard Deviation 0.09 |
| Peer, Two-Sided | Source Trust | Susceptible non-vapers | 2.96 units on a scale | Standard Deviation 0.08 |