Food Preferences, Appetitive Behavior
Conditions
Brief summary
The goal of this pilot study is to test the feasibility of assessing how biological factors and chemical properties of sugars may influence metabolism and food reward in humans. The main questions it aims to answer are: • Can differences in appetitive responses and neural activations to sucrose (table sugar) and its chemical components (glucose and fructose) be measured and quantified? This study is a crossover design, meaning every participant will complete every condition. Participants will consume beverages containing sucrose, glucose, or fructose, which are each novelly flavored, 6 times within a week. During one of the consumption times, energy expenditure, carbohydrate oxidation, and blood glucose will be measured in the lab before and for 2 hours after consumption. After participants have consumed each condition, they will undergo a tasting task in the MRI scanner, neural responses to receipt of the beverages are measured.
Detailed description
Prior studies in humans indicate that while energy expenditure response is similar after consumption of equal amounts of fructose, glucose, and sucrose (a dimer of glucose + fructose), carbohydrate oxidation and blood glucose responses differ. Elevated carbohydrate oxidation responses appear to be driven by the presence of fructose, and elevated blood glucose responses appear to be driven by the presence of glucose. Prior work also suggests that post-ingestive signals of glucose availability, measure specifically as blood glucose levels, intestinal glucose transporter activity, and carbohydrate oxidation rate, are all associated with elevated brain response to calorie-predictive flavor cues and reward learning of these flavor cues. However, in animal models, glucose has been shown to repeatedly and reliably condition these calorie-predictive learning responses, but fructose does not. Human work has indicated that oxidation of glucose is critical for these responses. Thus, it is unclear what roles fructose and glucose each play in conditioning reward responses and flavor-calorie learning. We hypothesize that fructose plays a synergistic role in enhancing flavor-calorie learning without itself conditioning the reward response.
Interventions
OTHERSucrose drink
Participants will consume flavored beverage solutions containing 110 calories of sucrose in 6 exposure sessions within 1 week. One exposure session will include pre- and post-consumption blood draws and indirect calorimetry measurements inside a metabolic chamber over a 2-hour period. The other 5 exposure sessions will occur at specified times outside the laboratory sessions. Subjective ratings of internal state (i.e., hunger, fullness, and thirst) will be collected throughout each exposure. Subjective ratings of liking and wanting of each beverage will also be assessed.
OTHERGlucose drink
Participants will consume flavored beverage solutions containing 110 calories of glucose in 6 exposure sessions within 1 week. One exposure session will include pre- and post-consumption blood draws and indirect calorimetry measurements inside a metabolic chamber over a 2-hour period. The other 5 exposure sessions will occur at specified times outside the laboratory sessions. Subjective ratings of internal state (i.e., hunger, fullness, and thirst) will be collected throughout each exposure. Subjective ratings of liking and wanting of each beverage will also be assessed.
OTHERFructose drink
Participants will consume flavored beverage solutions containing 110 calories of fructose in 6 exposure sessions within 1 week. One exposure session will include pre- and post-consumption blood draws and indirect calorimetry measurements inside a metabolic chamber over a 2-hour period. The other 5 exposure sessions will occur at specified times outside the laboratory sessions. Subjective ratings of internal state (i.e., hunger, fullness, and thirst) will be collected throughout each exposure. Subjective ratings of liking and wanting of each beverage will also be assessed.
Sponsors
Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University
Study design
Allocation
RANDOMIZED
Intervention model
CROSSOVER
Primary purpose
BASIC_SCIENCE
Masking
SINGLE (Subject)
Eligibility
Sex/Gender
ALL
Age
18 Years to 45 Years
Healthy volunteers
Yes
Inclusion criteria
1. BMI between 18.5-25 kg/m2 2. Not pregnant or planning to become pregnant during study participation 3. Residing in the Roanoke area and/or willing/able to attend sessions at the Fralin Biomedical Research Institute (FBRI) at Virginia Tech Carilion 4. Weigh at least 110 lbs
Exclusion criteria
1. Current inhaled nicotine use 2. History of alcohol dependence. 3. Current or past diagnosis of cardiometabolic disease or problems, including diabetes, endocrine, heart, or thyroid problems, that may influence study outcomes 4. Hemoglobin A1C \>5.7% 5. Taking medications known to influence study measures (including attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), allergy, antidepressant, antipsychotic, anxiolytic, birth control, blood pressure, blood glucose, cholesterol, thyroid, sleep, or weight loss medications) 6. Active medical or neurologic disorder, including cardiometabolic conditions or gastrointestinal conditions that may influence study outcomes 7. Recent change in body weight (gain or loss of \> 5 lbs within the past 3 months) 8. Current shift work (typical pattern of work/activity overnight) 9. Previous weight loss surgery 10. Adherence to a special diet within the past 3 months (e.g., low-carb or ketogenic diet, exclusion of food groups/specific macronutrients, intermittent fasting, etc.) 11. Allergy to any food or ingredient included in the study diets, meals, or beverages 12. Currently pregnant or planning to become pregnant during study participation 13. Claustrophobia 14. Contraindications for MRI, including pacemaker, aneurysm clips, neurostimulators, cochlear or other implants, metal in eyes, regular work with steel, etc. (Note: This is an fMRI-specific exclusion criterion. Participants may be allowed to participate in all other study sessions and measures that do not involve fMRI.) 15. Contraindications for bioelectrical impedance analysis, specifically implanted devices 16. Use of substances (or combinations of substances) in doses and frequencies that could influence neural outcomes of study.
Design outcomes
Primary
| Measure | Time frame | Description |
|---|---|---|
| Change in Preference- Subjective Liking Ratings for Each Beverage on a Scale | Immediately after informed consent and in the post-test session approximately 5 weeks later | Subjective ratings of liking of flavors used in the intervention will be assessed at baseline and after the intervention. The generalized Labeled Magnitude Scale will be used. The scale is anchored by descriptors of Most Disliked Sensation Imaginable and Most Liked Sensation Imaginable at the lower and upper ends, respectively. The score is determined by the place on the scale participants select (range of scale is 0-100). An increase in score from baseline to post-intervention indicates an increase in liking. |
Secondary
| Measure | Time frame | Description |
|---|---|---|
| Post-Test Measure of Preference - Wanting (ad Libitum Intake): The Amount Consumed of Each Beverage is Reported as the Outcome | At the end of study; approximately 5 weeks after first session | Ad libitum intake will be used as a measure of wanting in a post-test session. Participants will be provided each beverage used during the intervention and asked to drink as much or as little of them as they would like over a 30-minute period. |
| Post-Test Measure of Preference- Wanting (Forced Choice): Number of Participants Who Chose Each Indicated Beverage | At the end of study; approximately 5 weeks after first session | Forced choice will be used as a measure of wanting in a post-test session. Participants will be provided each of the beverages used during the intervention and asked to choose 1 to take home with them. |
| Post-Test Measure of Preference- Subjective Wanting Ratings for Each Beverage on a Scale | At the end of study; approximately 5 weeks after first session | Subjective ratings of liking of flavors used in the intervention will be assessed at baseline and after the intervention. A Visual Analog Scale will be used. Participants select a place on the line that corresponds with their subjective rating, and the score is determined by the place selected (range of scores is 0-100). The line is anchored by polar opposite descriptors (Do not want at all and Want very much). An increase in score from baseline to post-intervention indicates and increase in wanting. |
| Blood Glucose Response to Beverages | Each week for 3 weeks during the study | Blood glucose will be assessed at baseline and at set time points for 2 hours after consumption of intervention beverages (baseline, 5-, 20-, 40-, 60-, 90-, and 120-minutes after drink consumption)in one exposure session. Area under the curve is calculated using these time points and reported as the outcome measure. |
| Energy Expenditure in Response to Beverages | Each week for 3 weeks during the study | Indirect calorimetry will be used to determine energy expenditure at baseline and for 120 minutes after consumption of condition beverages in an exposure session. Area under the curve is calculated as a change from baseline energy expenditure using minute-by-minute resolution across 120 minutes and reported as the outcome measure. |
| Blood Oxygen Level-dependent (BOLD) Response to Beverages | At the end of study; approximately 5 weeks after first session | In a post-test session, functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) scans were performed while beverages (without calories) used during the intervention and a tasteless solution are delivered through a custom manifold fitted to a head coil and connected to a pump system that allows precisely timed and measured delivery of liquids. Participants receive the glucose, sucrose, fructose, and tasteless (control) solutions 18 times each over the course of 2 runs. Contrasts of interest are the blood oxygen level-dependent (BOLD) response of glucose+\>tasteless solution, sucrose\>tasteless solution, and fructose\>tasteless deliveries. Parameter estimates for these contrasts are extracted and reported. A positive outcome reflects greater whole-brain BOLD response for the sugar condition compared with a tasteless solution. |
Countries
United States
Participant flow
Participants by arm
| Arm | Count |
|---|---|
| Sucrose, Then Glucose, Then Fructose Participants will consume a 110 kcal sucrose drink 6 times during 1 week. Then, they will consume a 110 kcal glucose drink 6 times during 1 week, and then, a 110 kcal fructose drink 6 times during 1 week. | 1 |
| Sucrose, Then Fructose, Then Glucose Participants will consume a 110 kcal sucrose drink 6 times during 1 week. Then, they will consume a 110 kcal fructose drink 6 times during 1 week, and then, a 110 kcal glucose drink 6 times during 1 week. | 2 |
| Glucose, Then Fructose, Then Sucrose Participants will consume a 110 kcal glucose drink 6 times during 1 week. Then, they will consume a 110 kcal fructose drink 6 times during 1 week, and then, a 110 kcal sucrose drink 6 times during 1 week. | 0 |
| Glucose, Then Sucrose, Then Fructose Participants will consume a 110 kcal glucose drink 6 times during 1 week. Then, they will consume a 110 kcal sucrose drink 6 times during 1 week, and then, a 110 kcal fructose drink 6 times during 1 week. | 1 |
| Fructose, Then Glucose, Then Sucrose Participants will consume a 110 kcal fructose drink 6 times during 1 week. Then, they will consume a 110 kcal glucose drink 6 times during 1 week, and then, a 110 kcal sucrose drink 6 times during 1 week. | 1 |
| Fructose, Then Sucrose, Then Glucose Participants will consume a 110 kcal fructose drink 6 times during 1 week. Then, they will consume a 110 kcal sucrose drink 6 times during 1 week, and then, a 110 kcal glucose drink 6 times during 1 week. | 2 |
| Total | 7 |
Baseline characteristics
| Characteristic | Sucrose, Then Glucose, Then Fructose | Total | Fructose, Then Sucrose, Then Glucose | Fructose, Then Glucose, Then Sucrose | Glucose, Then Sucrose, Then Fructose | Sucrose, Then Fructose, Then Glucose |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Age, Continuous | 25 years STANDARD_DEVIATION 0 | 28.4 years STANDARD_DEVIATION 6.9 | 22 years STANDARD_DEVIATION 1.4 | 31 years STANDARD_DEVIATION 0 | 42 years STANDARD_DEVIATION 0 | 28.5 years STANDARD_DEVIATION 0.7 |
| Ethnicity (NIH/OMB) Hispanic or Latino | 0 Participants | 0 Participants | 0 Participants | 0 Participants | 0 Participants | 0 Participants |
| Ethnicity (NIH/OMB) Not Hispanic or Latino | 1 Participants | 7 Participants | 2 Participants | 1 Participants | 1 Participants | 2 Participants |
| Ethnicity (NIH/OMB) Unknown or Not Reported | 0 Participants | 0 Participants | 0 Participants | 0 Participants | 0 Participants | 0 Participants |
| Race (NIH/OMB) American Indian or Alaska Native | 0 Participants | 0 Participants | 0 Participants | 0 Participants | 0 Participants | 0 Participants |
| Race (NIH/OMB) Asian | 1 Participants | 2 Participants | 0 Participants | 0 Participants | 0 Participants | 1 Participants |
| Race (NIH/OMB) Black or African American | 0 Participants | 1 Participants | 0 Participants | 0 Participants | 1 Participants | 0 Participants |
| Race (NIH/OMB) More than one race | 0 Participants | 0 Participants | 0 Participants | 0 Participants | 0 Participants | 0 Participants |
| Race (NIH/OMB) Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander | 0 Participants | 0 Participants | 0 Participants | 0 Participants | 0 Participants | 0 Participants |
| Race (NIH/OMB) Unknown or Not Reported | 0 Participants | 0 Participants | 0 Participants | 0 Participants | 0 Participants | 0 Participants |
| Race (NIH/OMB) White | 0 Participants | 4 Participants | 2 Participants | 1 Participants | 0 Participants | 1 Participants |
| Region of Enrollment United States | 1 participants | 7 participants | 2 participants | 1 participants | 1 participants | 2 participants |
| Sex: Female, Male Female | 0 Participants | 2 Participants | 1 Participants | 0 Participants | 0 Participants | 1 Participants |
| Sex: Female, Male Male | 1 Participants | 5 Participants | 1 Participants | 1 Participants | 1 Participants | 1 Participants |
Adverse events
| Event type | EG000 affected / at risk | EG001 affected / at risk | EG002 affected / at risk |
|---|---|---|---|
| deaths Total, all-cause mortality | 0 / 6 | 0 / 7 | 0 / 6 |
| other Total, other adverse events | 0 / 6 | 0 / 7 | 0 / 6 |
| serious Total, serious adverse events | 0 / 6 | 0 / 7 | 0 / 6 |
Outcome results
Primary
Change in Preference- Subjective Liking Ratings for Each Beverage on a Scale
Subjective ratings of liking of flavors used in the intervention will be assessed at baseline and after the intervention. The generalized Labeled Magnitude Scale will be used. The scale is anchored by descriptors of Most Disliked Sensation Imaginable and Most Liked Sensation Imaginable at the lower and upper ends, respectively. The score is determined by the place on the scale participants select (range of scale is 0-100). An increase in score from baseline to post-intervention indicates an increase in liking.
Time frame: Immediately after informed consent and in the post-test session approximately 5 weeks later
| Arm | Measure | Value (MEAN) | Dispersion |
|---|---|---|---|
| Glucose Drink | Change in Preference- Subjective Liking Ratings for Each Beverage on a Scale | -12.8 units on a scale | Standard Deviation 26.3 |
| Fructose Drink | Change in Preference- Subjective Liking Ratings for Each Beverage on a Scale | -12.0 units on a scale | Standard Deviation 26.2 |
| Sucrose Drink | Change in Preference- Subjective Liking Ratings for Each Beverage on a Scale | -12.6 units on a scale | Standard Deviation 26.3 |
Secondary
Blood Glucose Response to Beverages
Blood glucose will be assessed at baseline and at set time points for 2 hours after consumption of intervention beverages (baseline, 5-, 20-, 40-, 60-, 90-, and 120-minutes after drink consumption)in one exposure session. Area under the curve is calculated using these time points and reported as the outcome measure.
Time frame: Each week for 3 weeks during the study
Population: One participant withdrew from the study prior to the glucose and sucrose drink sessions but completed the fructose drink session.
| Arm | Measure | Value (MEAN) | Dispersion |
|---|---|---|---|
| Glucose Drink | Blood Glucose Response to Beverages | 16821.25 mg/dl*min | Standard Deviation 4861.348755 |
| Fructose Drink | Blood Glucose Response to Beverages | 11484.58334 mg/dl*min | Standard Deviation 1468.61789 |
| Sucrose Drink | Blood Glucose Response to Beverages | 13760.66666 mg/dl*min | Standard Deviation 3813.485448 |
Secondary
Blood Oxygen Level-dependent (BOLD) Response to Beverages
In a post-test session, functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) scans were performed while beverages (without calories) used during the intervention and a tasteless solution are delivered through a custom manifold fitted to a head coil and connected to a pump system that allows precisely timed and measured delivery of liquids. Participants receive the glucose, sucrose, fructose, and tasteless (control) solutions 18 times each over the course of 2 runs. Contrasts of interest are the blood oxygen level-dependent (BOLD) response of glucose+\>tasteless solution, sucrose\>tasteless solution, and fructose\>tasteless deliveries. Parameter estimates for these contrasts are extracted and reported. A positive outcome reflects greater whole-brain BOLD response for the sugar condition compared with a tasteless solution.
Time frame: At the end of study; approximately 5 weeks after first session
| Arm | Measure | Value (MEAN) | Dispersion |
|---|---|---|---|
| Glucose Drink | Blood Oxygen Level-dependent (BOLD) Response to Beverages | 0.005 arbitrary units | Standard Deviation 0.085 |
| Fructose Drink | Blood Oxygen Level-dependent (BOLD) Response to Beverages | 0.109 arbitrary units | Standard Deviation 0.186 |
| Sucrose Drink | Blood Oxygen Level-dependent (BOLD) Response to Beverages | 0.050 arbitrary units | Standard Deviation 0.21 |
Secondary
Energy Expenditure in Response to Beverages
Indirect calorimetry will be used to determine energy expenditure at baseline and for 120 minutes after consumption of condition beverages in an exposure session. Area under the curve is calculated as a change from baseline energy expenditure using minute-by-minute resolution across 120 minutes and reported as the outcome measure.
Time frame: Each week for 3 weeks during the study
Population: Technical challenges with equipment and data collection resulted in lower sample size for analysis for this outcome.
| Arm | Measure | Value (MEAN) | Dispersion |
|---|---|---|---|
| Glucose Drink | Energy Expenditure in Response to Beverages | -0.89 kcal/min*min | Standard Deviation 6.63 |
| Fructose Drink | Energy Expenditure in Response to Beverages | 0.940 kcal/min*min | Standard Deviation 6.14 |
| Sucrose Drink | Energy Expenditure in Response to Beverages | 1.89 kcal/min*min | Standard Deviation 3.86 |
Secondary
Post-Test Measure of Preference- Subjective Wanting Ratings for Each Beverage on a Scale
Subjective ratings of liking of flavors used in the intervention will be assessed at baseline and after the intervention. A Visual Analog Scale will be used. Participants select a place on the line that corresponds with their subjective rating, and the score is determined by the place selected (range of scores is 0-100). The line is anchored by polar opposite descriptors (Do not want at all and Want very much). An increase in score from baseline to post-intervention indicates and increase in wanting.
Time frame: At the end of study; approximately 5 weeks after first session
| Arm | Measure | Value (MEAN) | Dispersion |
|---|---|---|---|
| Glucose Drink | Post-Test Measure of Preference- Subjective Wanting Ratings for Each Beverage on a Scale | 42 units on a scale | Standard Deviation 12.7 |
| Fructose Drink | Post-Test Measure of Preference- Subjective Wanting Ratings for Each Beverage on a Scale | 54.8 units on a scale | Standard Deviation 12.5 |
| Sucrose Drink | Post-Test Measure of Preference- Subjective Wanting Ratings for Each Beverage on a Scale | 46.9 units on a scale | Standard Deviation 14.5 |
Secondary
Post-Test Measure of Preference - Wanting (ad Libitum Intake): The Amount Consumed of Each Beverage is Reported as the Outcome
Ad libitum intake will be used as a measure of wanting in a post-test session. Participants will be provided each beverage used during the intervention and asked to drink as much or as little of them as they would like over a 30-minute period.
Time frame: At the end of study; approximately 5 weeks after first session
| Arm | Measure | Value (MEAN) | Dispersion |
|---|---|---|---|
| Glucose Drink | Post-Test Measure of Preference - Wanting (ad Libitum Intake): The Amount Consumed of Each Beverage is Reported as the Outcome | 67.8 ml consumed | Standard Deviation 98.1 |
| Fructose Drink | Post-Test Measure of Preference - Wanting (ad Libitum Intake): The Amount Consumed of Each Beverage is Reported as the Outcome | 66.0 ml consumed | Standard Deviation 99.1 |
| Sucrose Drink | Post-Test Measure of Preference - Wanting (ad Libitum Intake): The Amount Consumed of Each Beverage is Reported as the Outcome | 66.3 ml consumed | Standard Deviation 98.5 |
Secondary
Post-Test Measure of Preference- Wanting (Forced Choice): Number of Participants Who Chose Each Indicated Beverage
Forced choice will be used as a measure of wanting in a post-test session. Participants will be provided each of the beverages used during the intervention and asked to choose 1 to take home with them.
Time frame: At the end of study; approximately 5 weeks after first session
Population: In the post-test session, participants are asked to choose among the Glucose, Sucrose, and Fructose Drinks which they would like to take home in a forced choice test. Participants are only allowed to choose one of the three conditions.
| Arm | Measure | Value (COUNT_OF_PARTICIPANTS) |
|---|---|---|
| Glucose Drink | Post-Test Measure of Preference- Wanting (Forced Choice): Number of Participants Who Chose Each Indicated Beverage | 1 Participants |
| Fructose Drink | Post-Test Measure of Preference- Wanting (Forced Choice): Number of Participants Who Chose Each Indicated Beverage | 3 Participants |
| Sucrose Drink | Post-Test Measure of Preference- Wanting (Forced Choice): Number of Participants Who Chose Each Indicated Beverage | 2 Participants |