Eating Behavior
Conditions
Keywords
Food texture, Ultra-processed foods, Food intake, Energy intake, Eating rate
Brief summary
In this study the sustained effect of food texture differences (slow vs fast eating rate) of ultra-processed foods on energy intake and body composition changes will be investigated.
Detailed description
Rationale: Several observational studies have shown that the consumption of ultra-processed foods (UPF) is associated with higher energy intake and obesity rates. However, the high eating rate of UPF might cause its high energy intake instead of the industrial processing level itself. There is a positive relationship between the eating rate and oro-sensory exposure of foods and subsequent energy intake. Food texture modifies eating rate and through that the energy intake of foods. It is shown that harder, chunkier, more viscous, and more voluminous foods decrease eating rate of foods and thus decrease energy intake. So far, research on food texture and energy intake has only been performed for one meal or one day and it is unknown if food texture and eating rate have a sustained effect on energy intake. Knowledge on the sustained effect of food texture differences could be used for strategies to drive or limit energy intake. Objective: The primary objective is to determine the sustained effect of food texture differences (slow vs fast eating rate) of UPF on energy intake. The secondary objective is to determine the effect of texture differences (slow vs fast eating rate) of UPF on body composition changes. Study design: The study has a randomized crossover design with two treatment arms. All participants receive both conditions (1. slow test breakfast and dinners consisting of UPF and 2. fast test breakfast and dinners consisting of UPF for twelve subsequent days) and are their own control (within subject effects). Study population: Healthy Dutch speaking adults (n=20) between 18-55 years old with a BMI between 18.5-30 kg/m2. Intervention: Participants will join two test periods, each consisting out of twelve days. During the test periods they will visit the eating behaviour lab where they receive ad libitum breakfast and dinner meals. During meal consumption participants are video recorded to determine eating behaviour. Standardized fixed portion lunch meals and snacks will be provided on-the-go. On weekend days participants will receive pre-packed meals. In one test period participants will receive meals consisting of UPF that have a hard texture (slow eating rate) and in the other period (randomized order) they will receive meals consisting of UPF with a soft texture (fast eating rate). The order in which participants will receive the meals within each condition will be (block) randomized.
Interventions
OTHERAd libitum breakfast and dinner meals for 12 days
Ad libitum portions of breakfast and dinner meals served at the eating behaviour lab
Sponsors
Wageningen University
Study design
Allocation
RANDOMIZED
Intervention model
CROSSOVER
Primary purpose
OTHER
Masking
SINGLE (Subject)
Eligibility
Sex/Gender
ALL
Age
18 Years to 55 Years
Healthy volunteers
Yes
Inclusion criteria
* Between 18-55 years old at the day of inclusion * Able to understand and speak Dutch and English fluently or without difficulty (self-report) * BMI 18.5-30 kg/m2 - measured by the researchers during the information meeting (after signing informed consent) * Good general health and appetite (self-report) * Commonly (5 out of 7 week days) eating three meals a day every day around approximately the same times (self-report)
Exclusion criteria
* Difficulties with swallowing, chewing, and/or eating in general * Suffering from an endocrine or eating disorder, gastrointestinal illness or illness of the thyroid gland, respiratory disease, or diabetes * Having taste or smell disorders (self-report) * Braces (not including a dental wire) or oral piercing * Smoking * Consuming on average more than 21 glasses of alcohol per week * Not willing to stop using drugs during the study period (from inclusion till last test session) * Use of medication that may influence study outcomes (self-report) * Allergies or intolerance to any ingredient of the test meals * Not willing to eat the test food because of eating habits, believes, or religion * Following a vegetarian or vegan diet * Lactose intolerant * Men having facial hair such as a beard as facial movements cannot be analysed * Followed an energy restricted diet during the last 2 months * Gained or lost 5 kg of body weight over the last half year * High restrained eater according to the Dutch Eating Behaviour Questionnaire (men: score\>2.89, women\>3.39) - this exclusion criterion will not explicitly be communicated to the participants to prevent desirable answers * Signed up for participating in another research study of the Nutrition and Health department (WUR) * Employee, thesis student or intern at the chair group of Sensory Science and Eating Behaviour Human Nutrition (WUR). * Intensive exercising more than 5 hours per week * Low score (\<1) for liking the individual test meals on a nine point Likert scale based on pictures of the meals * Unfamiliar with the test meals (self-report) * Having an abnormal (non-representative) eating rates - measured by the researchers during the information meeting (after signing informed consent)
Design outcomes
Primary
| Measure | Time frame | Description |
|---|---|---|
| Average daily energy intake (kcal/day) | Two periods of 12 days | Daily energy intake across 12 days for each diet |
Secondary
| Measure | Time frame | Description |
|---|---|---|
| Fat free mass measured with bioelectrical impedance analysis | Two periods of 12 days | Fat free mass measured with bioelectrical impedance analysis (kg and %) |
| Fat free mass measured with skinfold measurements | Two periods of 12 days | Fat free mass measured with skinfold measurements (kg and %) |
| Fat mass measured with bioelectrical impedance analysis | Two periods of 12 days | Fat mass measured wit bioelectrical impedance analysis (kg and %) |
| Body weight (kg) | Two periods of 12 days | Body weight (kg) measured using in duplicate using a weighing scale |
| Waist and hip circumference (cm) | Two periods of 12 days | Waist and hip circumference will be measured in duplicate using measuring tape |
| BMI | Two periods of 12 days | Obtained by body weight (kg; measured using a weighing scale) and height (cm; measured using a stadiometer) |
| Fat mass measured with skinfold measurements | Two periods of 12 days | Fat mass measured with skinfold measurements (kg and %) |
Other
| Measure | Time frame | Description |
|---|---|---|
| Saltiness | Two periods of 12 days | Saltiness intensity after one bite will be rated on a 100-mm VAS scale ranging from 'not at all' to 'extremely' with anchors at the beginning and end of the line |
| Hardness | Two periods of 12 days | Hardness after one bite will be rated on a 100-mm VAS scale ranging from 'not at all' to 'extremely' with anchors at the beginning and end of the line |
| Firmness | Two periods of 12 days | Firmness after one bite will be rated on a 100-mm VAS scale ranging from 'not at all' to 'extremely' with anchors at the beginning and end of the line |
| Thickness | Two periods of 12 days | Thickness after one bite will be rated on a 100-mm VAS scale ranging from 'not at all' to 'extremely' with anchors at the beginning and end of the line |
| Chewiness | Two periods of 12 days | Chewiness after one bite will be rated on a 100-mm VAS scale ranging from 'not at all' to 'extremely' with anchors at the beginning and end of the line |
| Dryness | Two periods of 12 days | Dryness after one bite will be rated on a 100-mm VAS scale ranging from 'not at all' to 'extremely' with anchors at the beginning and end of the line |
| Cohesiveness | Two periods of 12 days | Cohesiveness after one bite will be rated on a 100-mm VAS scale ranging from 'not at all' to 'extremely' with anchors at the beginning and end of the line |
| Elasticity | Two periods of 12 days | Elasticity after one bite will be rated on a 100-mm VAS scale ranging from 'not at all' to 'extremely' with anchors at the beginning and end of the line |
| Springiness | Two periods of 12 days | Springiness after one bite will be rated on a 100-mm VAS scale ranging from 'not at all' to 'extremely' with anchors at the beginning and end of the line |
| Stickiness | Two periods of 12 days | Stickiness after one bite will be rated on a 100-mm VAS scale ranging from 'not at all' to 'extremely' with anchors at the beginning and end of the line |
| Familiarity | Two periods of 12 days | Familiarity (after one bite and after the meal) will be rated on a 100-mm VAS scale ranging from 'not at all' to 'extremely' with anchors at the beginning and end of the line |
| Expected satiation | Two periods of 12 days | Expected satiation (after one bite) will be rated on a 100-mm VAS scale ranging from 'not at all' to 'extremely' with anchors at the beginning and end of the line |
| Desire to eat the meal | Two periods of 12 days | Desire to eat the meal (after one bite and after the meal) will be rated on a 100-mm VAS scale ranging from 'not at all' to 'extremely' with anchors at the beginning and end of the line |
| Reasons for eating cessation | Two periods of 12 days | Reasons for eating cessation assessed with the Reasons Individuals Stop Eating Questionnaire (RISE-Q) |
| Eating rate (g/min) | Two periods of 12 days | Eating rate (g/min) measured with video recording and automated video analysis |
| Number of chews (chews/gram and chewes/bite) | Two periods of 12 days | Number of chews measured with video recording and automated video analysis |
| Number of bites | Two periods of 12 days | Number of bites measured with video recording and automated video analysis |
| Bite size | Two periods of 12 days | Bite size (gram/bite) measured with video recording and automated video analysis |
| Oral processing duration (minutes) | Two periods of 12 days | Oral processing duration (minutes) measured with video recording and automated video analysis |
| Oro-sensory exposure time (s/g) | Two periods of 12 days | Oro-sensory exposure time (s/g) measured with video recording and automated video analysis |
| Physical activity | Two periods of 12 days | Energy expenditure will be measured using ActiGraph activity monitors |
| Energy expenditure | Two periods of 12 days | Physical activity will be measured using ActiGraph activity monitors |
| Energy intake during wash-out period | Period of 16 days | Energy (kcal) measured with a food dairy during the wash-out period |
| Subjective hunger | Two periods of 12 days | Hunger measured before and 0, 30, 60 and 90 minutes after meal consumption on a 100-mm VAS ranging from 'not at all' (0) to 'extremely' (100) with anchors at the beginning and end of the line |
| Ultra-processed food intake during wash-out period | Period of 16 days | UPF intake (%) measured with a food dairy during the wash-out period |
| Habitual energy intake | One hour | Energy (kcal) measured with a food frequency questionnaire |
| Habitual macro-nutrient intake | One hour | Macro-nutrient (g) measured with a food frequency questionnaire |
| Habitual ultra-processed food intake | One hour | UPF intake (%) measured with a food frequency questionnaire |
| Habitual physical activity | Ten minutes | Habitual physical activity (MET-min/week) measured using the short version of the International Physical Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ) |
| Habitual energy expenditure | Ten minutes | Habitual energy expenditure (kcal/week) measured using the short version of the International Physical Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ) |
| Self-reported eating rate | One minute | Self-reported eating rate measured using the question How would you describe your eating rate compared with others? which can be answered on a five-point Likert scale ('very slow', 'slow', 'average', 'fast' or 'very fast') |
| Restrained eating, emotional eating and external eating | Thirty minutes | The level of restrained, emotional, and external eating assessed with the Dutch Eating Behaviour Questionnaire (DEBQ) consisting out of 33 questions. |
| Diet satisfaction | Ten minutes | The Diet Satisfaction Questionnaire (DSat-28) consists out of five scales accessed by 28 statements about the characteristics of the lifestyle and attitudes of individuals that reflect satisfaction within the diets |
| Appetitive traits | Ten minutes | The Adult Eating Behaviour Questionnaire (AEBQ) will be used to characterize the appetitive traits of the participants (Hunot et al., 2016). The questionnaire consists out of 35 statements which can be scored from Strongly agree (1) to 'Strongly disagree (5). The statements are summarized into the scales 'Enjoyment of food', 'Emotional over-eating', 'emotional under-eating', 'Food fussiness', 'Food responsiveness', 'Hunger', 'Slowness in eating', and 'Satiety responsiveness'. |
| Macro-nutrient intake during wash-out period | Period of 16 days | Macro-nutrient intake (g) measured with a food dairy during the wash-out period |
| Subjective fullness | Two periods of 12 days | Fullness measured before and 0, 30, 60 and 90 minutes after meal consumption on a 100-mm VAS ranging from 'not at all' (0) to 'extremely' (100) with anchors at the beginning and end of the line |
| Subjective desire to eat | Two periods of 12 days | Desire to eat measured before and 0, 30, 60 and 90 minutes after meal consumption on a 100-mm VAS ranging from 'not at all' (0) to 'extremely' (100) with anchors at the beginning and end of the line |
| Subjective prospective consumption | Two periods of 12 days | Prospective consumption measured before and 0, 30, 60 and 90 minutes after meal consumption on a 100-mm VAS ranging from 'not at all' (0) to 'extremely' (100) with anchors at the beginning and end of the line |
| Liking | Two periods of 12 days | Liking of meals after one bite and after meal consumption will be rated on a 100-mm VAS scale ranging from 'not at all' to 'extremely' with anchors at the beginning and end of the line |
| Flavour intensity | Two periods of 12 days | Flavour intensity after one bite will be rated on a 100-mm VAS scale ranging from 'not at all' to 'extremely' with anchors at the beginning and end of the line |
| Sweetness | Two periods of 12 days | Sweetness intensity after one bite will be rated on a 100-mm VAS scale ranging from 'not at all' to 'extremely' with anchors at the beginning and end of the line |
| Sourness | Two periods of 12 days | Sourness intensity after one bite will be rated on a 100-mm VAS scale ranging from 'not at all' to 'extremely' with anchors at the beginning and end of the line |
Countries
Netherlands
Outcome results
None listed