Emotions, Residential Characteristics, Stress, Physiological, Stress, Psychological
Conditions
Keywords
Neighborhoods, Poverty Areas, Adolescent Development
Brief summary
The objective of this study, named THRIVE (The Research In Virtual Environments Study), is to test hypotheses for how neighborhood environments influence stress and emotion, as a mechanism by which they may influence health. Neighborhood environments may have both acute influences on stress-related processes, but also may have lifespan effects due to the chronic, cumulative effects of repeated exposures and the long-term toll of adapting to adverse neighborhood environments. However, assessing neighborhood influences on stress and emotion is methodologically challenging. This study develops such a novel, alternative approach to address these questions by deploying a virtual reality (VR) based model of neighborhood disadvantage and affluence that creates an immersive experience approximating the experience of being in different neighborhoods. In this study, this model will be applied to understand neighborhood effects in a diverse sample of adolescents (n = 130) from a range of disadvantaged and affluent neighborhoods. The proposed study will employ a randomized experiment (n = 65 per condition), with online questionnaires and a single study session, to determine (a) if virtual exposure to neighborhood disadvantage elicits differences in emotion and stress reactivity; (2) if growing up in a disadvantaged neighborhood results in habituation or sensitization to different neighborhood characteristics; and (3) if chronic stress results in habituation or sensitization to different neighborhood characteristics. This research will develop an innovative methodology that will help establish the role that neighborhoods may play in eliciting stress as well as the processes of adaptation to chronic stress and chronic neighborhood exposures. In addition, it will help establish a method that can be utilized more broadly to study contextual and social environmental influences on psychological and biological risk in adolescence.
Interventions
OTHERVirtual reality
Participants are immersed in a neighborhood environment in virtual reality
Sponsors
Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD)
University of Southern California
Study design
Allocation
RANDOMIZED
Intervention model
PARALLEL
Primary purpose
BASIC_SCIENCE
Masking
NONE
Eligibility
Sex/Gender
ALL
Age
14 Years to 17 Years
Healthy volunteers
Yes
Inclusion criteria
* English speaking * Are able to use a dominant hand for joystick manipulation and a non- dominant hand for physiological measurements, * Are in good physical and mental health, with no self-reported history of hypertension, cardiovascular disease (CVD) or CVD treatment (with associated medication list indicative of treatments that result in exclusion), * Have hair at least 1cm in length based on self-report to be able to provide a hair sample.
Exclusion criteria
* Pregnant, by self-report
Design outcomes
Primary
| Measure | Time frame | Description |
|---|---|---|
| Emotional Response | Immediately after the virtual reality task (average of 28 minutes post baseline) | Multiple measures were used for emotion felt in the VR neighborhood: 1. Participants rate how strongly they felt 9 specific emotions (0-8 scale; 0 indicates none, 8 is the strongest possible feeling). 2. Two composite scores based on averaging responses for specific emotions: Positive emotion (enthusiasm, contentment, amusement) and Negative emotion (fear, sadness, disgust, anger). Averages were based on the standard score representing standard deviations above/below the mean. The mean score was 0. Positive emotion ranged from -1.9, the lowest positive emotion, to 2.0, the highest. Negative emotion ranged from -0.7, the lowest negative emotion, to 3.5, the highest. A positive score reflects greater than average for that type of emotion, and negative score reflects less than average for that type of emotion. 3. Self-Assessment Manikin (SAM) scale: two dimensional scales for how they felt, from (a) happy to unhappy (1 to 9), and (b) excited to calm (1 to 9) (Bradley & Lang, 1994) |
| Salivary Cortisol | Measured 5 times: (1) end of baseline, (2) after virtual reality (VR) neighborhood (VR: 11 minutes, average), (3) after questionnaires (26 minutes after VR end, average), (4) video (recovery), after first 15 minutes, (5) after final 15 minutes of video | Concentration of the stress hormone cortisol in saliva samples, measured in (µg/dL), that participants provide over the course of the study session to assess cortisol response |
| Blood Pressure | Measured in 5 epochs, typical 60-90 minutes total: (1) Baseline before virtual reality (VR), (2) VR neighborhood (11 minutes, average), (3) Questionnaires (begins 6 minutes after VR end, average), (4) Video: first 15 minutes, (5) Video, final 15 minutes | Systolic (SBP) and diastolic (DBP) blood pressure, in mmHG, measured and summarized across epochs in the study session. |
| Respiratory Sinus Arrhythmia (RSA) | Measured in 5 epochs, typical 60-90 minutes total: (1) Baseline before virtual reality (VR), (2) VR neighborhood (11 minutes, average), (3) Questionnaires (begins 6 minutes after VR end, average), (4) Video: first 15 minutes, (5) Video, final 15 minutes | Respiratory Sinus Arrhythmia (RSA) reflects parasympathetic nervous systemt activity and is used as an index of emotion regulation, with higher scores indicating greater parasympathetic activation. It is derived from the natural log of the power of high frequency heart rate variability (heart rate variability is the variability in the amount of time in between heart beats, and high frequency heart rate variability is the power of activity in the 0.15-0.4 Hz range). Based on electrocardiograph signals measured and summarized across epochs in the study session. |
| Cardiac Output (CO) | Measured in 5 epochs, typical 60-90 minutes total: (1) Baseline before virtual reality (VR), (2) VR neighborhood (11 minutes, average), (3) Questionnaires (begins 6 minutes after VR end, average), (4) Video: first 15 minutes, (5) Video, final 15 minutes | Cardiac Output (CO) represents the volume of blood pumped by the heart (L/min). Increasing values indicate greater volume of blood pumped per unit time. Derived from impedance cardiography signals measured and and then summarized across epochs in the study session. |
| Total Peripheral Resistance (TPR) | Measured in 5 epochs, typical 60-90 minutes total: (1) Baseline before virtual reality (VR), (2) VR neighborhood (11 minutes, average), (3) Questionnaires (begins 6 minutes after VR end, average), (4) Video: first 15 minutes, (5) Video, final 15 minutes | Total peripheral resistance (TPR) is an index of an index of vasoconstriction (mean arterial pressure divided by cardiac output). Increasing values indicate greater vasoconstriction. Derived from impedance cardiography signals measured and and then summarized across epochs in the study session. |
| Pre-ejection Period (PEP) | Measured in 5 epochs, typical 60-90 minutes total: (1) Baseline before virtual reality (VR), (2) VR neighborhood (11 minutes, average), (3) Questionnaires (begins 6 minutes after VR end, average), (4) Video: first 15 minutes, (5) Video, final 15 minutes | Pre-ejection period (PEP) is a measure of sympathetic nervous system activation. Higher values indicate greater sympathetic activation. Derived from impedance cardiography (Q-point in ECG to B-point in impedance cardiography), signals are measured and and then summarized across epochs in the study session. |
Countries
United States
Participant flow
Pre-assignment details
While 107 participants were enrolled, eight withdrew after enrollment but prior to randomization to condition, without attending the single study session. Thus while enrollment was 107 the total started in the protocol flow was 99.
Participants by arm
| Arm | Count |
|---|---|
| Virtual Reality Simulation of Neighborhood Disadvantage Participants will attend one study session. They will watch a video during a baseline rest period. Participants will be assigned to navigate and explore the virtual neighborhood representative of disadvantage they were assigned to. Then they will complete questionnaires and watch a video again during a recovery period.
Virtual reality: Participants are immersed in a neighborhood environment in virtual reality | 50 |
| Virtual Reality Simulation of Neighborhood Affluence Participants will attend one study session. They will watch a video during a baseline rest period. Participants will be assigned to navigate and explore the virtual neighborhood, representative of affluence they were assigned to. Then they will complete questionnaires and watch a video again during a recovery period.
Virtual reality: Participants are immersed in a neighborhood environment in virtual reality | 49 |
| Total | 99 |
Baseline characteristics
| Characteristic | Virtual Reality Simulation of Neighborhood Disadvantage | Virtual Reality Simulation of Neighborhood Affluence | Total |
|---|---|---|---|
| Age, Continuous | 16.03 years STANDARD_DEVIATION 1.06 | 15.85 years STANDARD_DEVIATION 1.16 | 15.94 years STANDARD_DEVIATION 1.11 |
| Neighborhood Poverty Rate | 11.56 % below poverty in neighborhood STANDARD_DEVIATION 11.02 | 9.82 % below poverty in neighborhood STANDARD_DEVIATION 8.3 | 10.71 % below poverty in neighborhood STANDARD_DEVIATION 9.77 |
| Parental Education Bachelor's Degree | 20 Participants | 21 Participants | 41 Participants |
| Parental Education Doctoral Degree or Equivalent | 5 Participants | 6 Participants | 11 Participants |
| Parental Education High School Education or Less | 5 Participants | 4 Participants | 9 Participants |
| Parental Education Master's Degree | 13 Participants | 16 Participants | 29 Participants |
| Parental Education Some College or Associate's Degree | 7 Participants | 2 Participants | 9 Participants |
| Race/Ethnicity, Customized African American / Black | 3 Participants | 2 Participants | 5 Participants |
| Race/Ethnicity, Customized Asian | 6 Participants | 5 Participants | 11 Participants |
| Race/Ethnicity, Customized Latinx / Hispanic | 21 Participants | 19 Participants | 40 Participants |
| Race/Ethnicity, Customized Multiracial | 6 Participants | 4 Participants | 10 Participants |
| Race/Ethnicity, Customized Native American, American Indian or Alaskan Native | 0 Participants | 2 Participants | 2 Participants |
| Race/Ethnicity, Customized Other | 1 Participants | 0 Participants | 1 Participants |
| Race/Ethnicity, Customized White | 13 Participants | 17 Participants | 30 Participants |
| Sex: Female, Male Female | 20 Participants | 16 Participants | 36 Participants |
| Sex: Female, Male Male | 30 Participants | 33 Participants | 63 Participants |
Adverse events
| Event type | EG000 affected / at risk | EG001 affected / at risk |
|---|---|---|
| deaths Total, all-cause mortality | 0 / 50 | 0 / 49 |
| other Total, other adverse events | 0 / 50 | 0 / 49 |
| serious Total, serious adverse events | 0 / 50 | 0 / 49 |
Outcome results
Primary
Blood Pressure
Systolic (SBP) and diastolic (DBP) blood pressure, in mmHG, measured and summarized across epochs in the study session.
Time frame: Measured in 5 epochs, typical 60-90 minutes total: (1) Baseline before virtual reality (VR), (2) VR neighborhood (11 minutes, average), (3) Questionnaires (begins 6 minutes after VR end, average), (4) Video: first 15 minutes, (5) Video, final 15 minutes
Population: Two participants (one from each arm) were excluded from analyses due to major technical problems / glitches in virtual reality that lead to invalid data. One participant did not have blood pressure recordings and for one technical problems led to data not being recorded.
| Arm | Measure | Group | Value (MEAN) | Dispersion |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Virtual Reality Simulation of Neighborhood Disadvantage | Blood Pressure | SBP, Baseline (mean, in mmHg) | 120.45 mmHG | Standard Deviation 17.65 |
| Virtual Reality Simulation of Neighborhood Disadvantage | Blood Pressure | SBP, VR neighborhood (mean, in mmHg) | 123.82 mmHG | Standard Deviation 23.46 |
| Virtual Reality Simulation of Neighborhood Disadvantage | Blood Pressure | SBP, Questionnaires (mean, in mmHg) | 120.41 mmHG | Standard Deviation 16.13 |
| Virtual Reality Simulation of Neighborhood Disadvantage | Blood Pressure | SBP, Video, First 15 Minutes (mean, in mmHg) | 115.29 mmHG | Standard Deviation 20.16 |
| Virtual Reality Simulation of Neighborhood Disadvantage | Blood Pressure | SBP, Video, Second, 15 Minutes (mean, in mmHg) | 110.90 mmHG | Standard Deviation 22.62 |
| Virtual Reality Simulation of Neighborhood Disadvantage | Blood Pressure | DBP, Baseline (mean, in mmHg) | 70.14 mmHG | Standard Deviation 13.64 |
| Virtual Reality Simulation of Neighborhood Disadvantage | Blood Pressure | DBP, VR neighborhood (mean, in mmHg) | 76.29 mmHG | Standard Deviation 15.13 |
| Virtual Reality Simulation of Neighborhood Disadvantage | Blood Pressure | DBP, Questionnaires (mean, in mmHg) | 69.18 mmHG | Standard Deviation 11.91 |
| Virtual Reality Simulation of Neighborhood Disadvantage | Blood Pressure | DBP, Video, First 15 Minutes (mean, in mmHg) | 70.50 mmHG | Standard Deviation 15.91 |
| Virtual Reality Simulation of Neighborhood Disadvantage | Blood Pressure | DBP, Video, Second 15 Minutes (mean, in mmHg) | 66.07 mmHG | Standard Deviation 13.89 |
| Virtual Reality Simulation of Neighborhood Affluence | Blood Pressure | DBP, Questionnaires (mean, in mmHg) | 68.22 mmHG | Standard Deviation 14.35 |
| Virtual Reality Simulation of Neighborhood Affluence | Blood Pressure | SBP, Baseline (mean, in mmHg) | 117.79 mmHG | Standard Deviation 19.78 |
| Virtual Reality Simulation of Neighborhood Affluence | Blood Pressure | DBP, Baseline (mean, in mmHg) | 66.23 mmHG | Standard Deviation 13.65 |
| Virtual Reality Simulation of Neighborhood Affluence | Blood Pressure | SBP, VR neighborhood (mean, in mmHg) | 125.97 mmHG | Standard Deviation 19.13 |
| Virtual Reality Simulation of Neighborhood Affluence | Blood Pressure | DBP, Video, Second 15 Minutes (mean, in mmHg) | 67.20 mmHG | Standard Deviation 11.22 |
| Virtual Reality Simulation of Neighborhood Affluence | Blood Pressure | SBP, Questionnaires (mean, in mmHg) | 114.11 mmHG | Standard Deviation 17.46 |
| Virtual Reality Simulation of Neighborhood Affluence | Blood Pressure | DBP, VR neighborhood (mean, in mmHg) | 72.28 mmHG | Standard Deviation 16.22 |
| Virtual Reality Simulation of Neighborhood Affluence | Blood Pressure | SBP, Video, First 15 Minutes (mean, in mmHg) | 113.02 mmHG | Standard Deviation 23.54 |
| Virtual Reality Simulation of Neighborhood Affluence | Blood Pressure | DBP, Video, First 15 Minutes (mean, in mmHg) | 67.31 mmHG | Standard Deviation 17.29 |
| Virtual Reality Simulation of Neighborhood Affluence | Blood Pressure | SBP, Video, Second, 15 Minutes (mean, in mmHg) | 113.79 mmHG | Standard Deviation 17.52 |
Primary
Cardiac Output (CO)
Cardiac Output (CO) represents the volume of blood pumped by the heart (L/min). Increasing values indicate greater volume of blood pumped per unit time. Derived from impedance cardiography signals measured and and then summarized across epochs in the study session.
Time frame: Measured in 5 epochs, typical 60-90 minutes total: (1) Baseline before virtual reality (VR), (2) VR neighborhood (11 minutes, average), (3) Questionnaires (begins 6 minutes after VR end, average), (4) Video: first 15 minutes, (5) Video, final 15 minutes
Population: Two participants (one from each arm) were excluded from analyses due to major technical problems / glitches in virtual reality that lead to invalid data. One participant had technical problems led to data not being recorded, and four had minimal or low quality signal recorded across data collection.
| Arm | Measure | Group | Value (MEAN) | Dispersion |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Virtual Reality Simulation of Neighborhood Disadvantage | Cardiac Output (CO) | CO, VR neighborhood (mean) | 5.37 L/min | Standard Deviation 1.79 |
| Virtual Reality Simulation of Neighborhood Disadvantage | Cardiac Output (CO) | CO, Video, First 15 Minutes (mean) | 5.30 L/min | Standard Deviation 1.82 |
| Virtual Reality Simulation of Neighborhood Disadvantage | Cardiac Output (CO) | CO, Questionnaires (mean) | 5.18 L/min | Standard Deviation 1.74 |
| Virtual Reality Simulation of Neighborhood Disadvantage | Cardiac Output (CO) | CO, Video, Second 15 Minutes (mean) | 5.28 L/min | Standard Deviation 1.72 |
| Virtual Reality Simulation of Neighborhood Disadvantage | Cardiac Output (CO) | CO, Baseline (mean) | 5.35 L/min | Standard Deviation 1.99 |
| Virtual Reality Simulation of Neighborhood Affluence | Cardiac Output (CO) | CO, Video, Second 15 Minutes (mean) | 5.15 L/min | Standard Deviation 1.62 |
| Virtual Reality Simulation of Neighborhood Affluence | Cardiac Output (CO) | CO, Baseline (mean) | 5.50 L/min | Standard Deviation 2.13 |
| Virtual Reality Simulation of Neighborhood Affluence | Cardiac Output (CO) | CO, VR neighborhood (mean) | 5.90 L/min | Standard Deviation 2.42 |
| Virtual Reality Simulation of Neighborhood Affluence | Cardiac Output (CO) | CO, Questionnaires (mean) | 5.29 L/min | Standard Deviation 1.7 |
| Virtual Reality Simulation of Neighborhood Affluence | Cardiac Output (CO) | CO, Video, First 15 Minutes (mean) | 5.12 L/min | Standard Deviation 1.73 |
Primary
Emotional Response
Multiple measures were used for emotion felt in the VR neighborhood: 1. Participants rate how strongly they felt 9 specific emotions (0-8 scale; 0 indicates none, 8 is the strongest possible feeling). 2. Two composite scores based on averaging responses for specific emotions: Positive emotion (enthusiasm, contentment, amusement) and Negative emotion (fear, sadness, disgust, anger). Averages were based on the standard score representing standard deviations above/below the mean. The mean score was 0. Positive emotion ranged from -1.9, the lowest positive emotion, to 2.0, the highest. Negative emotion ranged from -0.7, the lowest negative emotion, to 3.5, the highest. A positive score reflects greater than average for that type of emotion, and negative score reflects less than average for that type of emotion. 3. Self-Assessment Manikin (SAM) scale: two dimensional scales for how they felt, from (a) happy to unhappy (1 to 9), and (b) excited to calm (1 to 9) (Bradley & Lang, 1994)
Time frame: Immediately after the virtual reality task (average of 28 minutes post baseline)
Population: Two participants (one from each arm) were excluded from analyses due to major technical problems / glitches in virtual reality presentation that lead to invalid data. One participant did not complete the measure of happy/unhappy
| Arm | Measure | Group | Value (MEAN) | Dispersion |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Virtual Reality Simulation of Neighborhood Disadvantage | Emotional Response | Contentment / Happiness: from 0 (not at all) to 8 (strongest ever felt) | 2.98 units on a scale | Standard Deviation 1.65 |
| Virtual Reality Simulation of Neighborhood Disadvantage | Emotional Response | Sadness: from 0 (not at all) to 8 (strongest ever felt) | 2.67 units on a scale | Standard Deviation 2.37 |
| Virtual Reality Simulation of Neighborhood Disadvantage | Emotional Response | Disgust: from 0 (not at all) to 8 (strongest ever felt) | 2.86 units on a scale | Standard Deviation 2.42 |
| Virtual Reality Simulation of Neighborhood Disadvantage | Emotional Response | Surprise: from 0 (not at all) to 8 (strongest ever felt) | 2.84 units on a scale | Standard Deviation 2.31 |
| Virtual Reality Simulation of Neighborhood Disadvantage | Emotional Response | Anger: from 0 (not at all) to 8 (strongest ever felt) | 1.29 units on a scale | Standard Deviation 1.89 |
| Virtual Reality Simulation of Neighborhood Disadvantage | Emotional Response | Positive Emotion: Composite based on enthusiasm, contentment, amusement (Overall mean is 0) | -0.28 units on a scale | Standard Deviation 0.76 |
| Virtual Reality Simulation of Neighborhood Disadvantage | Emotional Response | Enthusiasm/excitement: from 0 (not at all) to 8 (strongest ever felt) | 2.69 units on a scale | Standard Deviation 1.97 |
| Virtual Reality Simulation of Neighborhood Disadvantage | Emotional Response | Negative Emotion: Composite based on fear, sadness, disgust, anger (Overall mean is 0) | 0.41 units on a scale | Standard Deviation 0.98 |
| Virtual Reality Simulation of Neighborhood Disadvantage | Emotional Response | Compassion: from 0 (not at all) to 8 (strongest ever felt) | 3.18 units on a scale | Standard Deviation 2.09 |
| Virtual Reality Simulation of Neighborhood Disadvantage | Emotional Response | Happy-Unhappy: from 1 (happy) to 9 (unhappy) [Self-Assessment Manikin (SAM)] | 4.58 units on a scale | Standard Deviation 1.66 |
| Virtual Reality Simulation of Neighborhood Disadvantage | Emotional Response | Fear: from 0 (not at all) to 8 (strongest ever felt) | 1.59 units on a scale | Standard Deviation 2.21 |
| Virtual Reality Simulation of Neighborhood Disadvantage | Emotional Response | Excited-calm: from 1 (excited) to 9 (calm) [Self-Assessment Manikin (SAM)] | 5.39 units on a scale | Standard Deviation 1.96 |
| Virtual Reality Simulation of Neighborhood Disadvantage | Emotional Response | Amusement: from 0 (not at all) to 8 (strongest ever felt) | 3.65 units on a scale | Standard Deviation 1.82 |
| Virtual Reality Simulation of Neighborhood Affluence | Emotional Response | Excited-calm: from 1 (excited) to 9 (calm) [Self-Assessment Manikin (SAM)] | 5.85 units on a scale | Standard Deviation 1.98 |
| Virtual Reality Simulation of Neighborhood Affluence | Emotional Response | Amusement: from 0 (not at all) to 8 (strongest ever felt) | 4.31 units on a scale | Standard Deviation 1.75 |
| Virtual Reality Simulation of Neighborhood Affluence | Emotional Response | Anger: from 0 (not at all) to 8 (strongest ever felt) | 0.33 units on a scale | Standard Deviation 0.81 |
| Virtual Reality Simulation of Neighborhood Affluence | Emotional Response | Contentment / Happiness: from 0 (not at all) to 8 (strongest ever felt) | 4.54 units on a scale | Standard Deviation 1.88 |
| Virtual Reality Simulation of Neighborhood Affluence | Emotional Response | Compassion: from 0 (not at all) to 8 (strongest ever felt) | 2.56 units on a scale | Standard Deviation 2.32 |
| Virtual Reality Simulation of Neighborhood Affluence | Emotional Response | Disgust: from 0 (not at all) to 8 (strongest ever felt) | 0.69 units on a scale | Standard Deviation 1.36 |
| Virtual Reality Simulation of Neighborhood Affluence | Emotional Response | Enthusiasm/excitement: from 0 (not at all) to 8 (strongest ever felt) | 3.77 units on a scale | Standard Deviation 2.21 |
| Virtual Reality Simulation of Neighborhood Affluence | Emotional Response | Fear: from 0 (not at all) to 8 (strongest ever felt) | 0.44 units on a scale | Standard Deviation 0.92 |
| Virtual Reality Simulation of Neighborhood Affluence | Emotional Response | Sadness: from 0 (not at all) to 8 (strongest ever felt) | 0.33 units on a scale | Standard Deviation 0.69 |
| Virtual Reality Simulation of Neighborhood Affluence | Emotional Response | Surprise: from 0 (not at all) to 8 (strongest ever felt) | 2.79 units on a scale | Standard Deviation 2.62 |
| Virtual Reality Simulation of Neighborhood Affluence | Emotional Response | Positive Emotion: Composite based on enthusiasm, contentment, amusement (Overall mean is 0) | 0.28 units on a scale | Standard Deviation 0.91 |
| Virtual Reality Simulation of Neighborhood Affluence | Emotional Response | Negative Emotion: Composite based on fear, sadness, disgust, anger (Overall mean is 0) | -0.42 units on a scale | Standard Deviation 0.34 |
| Virtual Reality Simulation of Neighborhood Affluence | Emotional Response | Happy-Unhappy: from 1 (happy) to 9 (unhappy) [Self-Assessment Manikin (SAM)] | 3.4 units on a scale | Standard Deviation 1.61 |
Primary
Pre-ejection Period (PEP)
Pre-ejection period (PEP) is a measure of sympathetic nervous system activation. Higher values indicate greater sympathetic activation. Derived from impedance cardiography (Q-point in ECG to B-point in impedance cardiography), signals are measured and and then summarized across epochs in the study session.
Time frame: Measured in 5 epochs, typical 60-90 minutes total: (1) Baseline before virtual reality (VR), (2) VR neighborhood (11 minutes, average), (3) Questionnaires (begins 6 minutes after VR end, average), (4) Video: first 15 minutes, (5) Video, final 15 minutes
Population: Two participants (one from each arm) were excluded from analyses due to major technical problems / glitches in virtual reality that lead to invalid data. One participant had technical problems led to data not being recorded, and four had minimal or low quality signal recorded across data collection.
| Arm | Measure | Group | Value (MEAN) | Dispersion |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Virtual Reality Simulation of Neighborhood Disadvantage | Pre-ejection Period (PEP) | PEP, VR neighborhood (mean) | 112.49 ms | Standard Deviation 6.42 |
| Virtual Reality Simulation of Neighborhood Disadvantage | Pre-ejection Period (PEP) | PEP, Video, First 15 Minutes (mean) | 114.29 ms | Standard Deviation 6.94 |
| Virtual Reality Simulation of Neighborhood Disadvantage | Pre-ejection Period (PEP) | PEP, Questionnaires (mean) | 112.97 ms | Standard Deviation 6.68 |
| Virtual Reality Simulation of Neighborhood Disadvantage | Pre-ejection Period (PEP) | PEP, Video, Second 15 Minutes (mean) | 113.28 ms | Standard Deviation 7.04 |
| Virtual Reality Simulation of Neighborhood Disadvantage | Pre-ejection Period (PEP) | PEP, Baseline (mean) | 114.69 ms | Standard Deviation 7.43 |
| Virtual Reality Simulation of Neighborhood Affluence | Pre-ejection Period (PEP) | PEP, Video, Second 15 Minutes (mean) | 114.75 ms | Standard Deviation 8.18 |
| Virtual Reality Simulation of Neighborhood Affluence | Pre-ejection Period (PEP) | PEP, Baseline (mean) | 117.92 ms | Standard Deviation 7.64 |
| Virtual Reality Simulation of Neighborhood Affluence | Pre-ejection Period (PEP) | PEP, VR neighborhood (mean) | 113.84 ms | Standard Deviation 8.64 |
| Virtual Reality Simulation of Neighborhood Affluence | Pre-ejection Period (PEP) | PEP, Questionnaires (mean) | 114.60 ms | Standard Deviation 8.68 |
| Virtual Reality Simulation of Neighborhood Affluence | Pre-ejection Period (PEP) | PEP, Video, First 15 Minutes (mean) | 115.58 ms | Standard Deviation 7.43 |
Primary
Respiratory Sinus Arrhythmia (RSA)
Respiratory Sinus Arrhythmia (RSA) reflects parasympathetic nervous systemt activity and is used as an index of emotion regulation, with higher scores indicating greater parasympathetic activation. It is derived from the natural log of the power of high frequency heart rate variability (heart rate variability is the variability in the amount of time in between heart beats, and high frequency heart rate variability is the power of activity in the 0.15-0.4 Hz range). Based on electrocardiograph signals measured and summarized across epochs in the study session.
Time frame: Measured in 5 epochs, typical 60-90 minutes total: (1) Baseline before virtual reality (VR), (2) VR neighborhood (11 minutes, average), (3) Questionnaires (begins 6 minutes after VR end, average), (4) Video: first 15 minutes, (5) Video, final 15 minutes
Population: Two participants (one from each arm) were excluded from analyses due to major technical problems / glitches in virtual reality that lead to invalid data. One participant had technical problems led to data not being recorded, and another had minimal signal recorded across data collection.
| Arm | Measure | Group | Value (MEAN) | Dispersion |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Virtual Reality Simulation of Neighborhood Disadvantage | Respiratory Sinus Arrhythmia (RSA) | RSA, VR neighborhood (Mean) | 6.88 ms-squared | Standard Deviation 0.79 |
| Virtual Reality Simulation of Neighborhood Disadvantage | Respiratory Sinus Arrhythmia (RSA) | RSA, Video, First 15 Minutes (Mean) | 6.76 ms-squared | Standard Deviation 0.88 |
| Virtual Reality Simulation of Neighborhood Disadvantage | Respiratory Sinus Arrhythmia (RSA) | RSA, Questionnaires (Mean) | 6.77 ms-squared | Standard Deviation 0.8 |
| Virtual Reality Simulation of Neighborhood Disadvantage | Respiratory Sinus Arrhythmia (RSA) | RSA, Video, Second 15 Minutes (Mean) | 6.89 ms-squared | Standard Deviation 0.82 |
| Virtual Reality Simulation of Neighborhood Disadvantage | Respiratory Sinus Arrhythmia (RSA) | RSA, Baseline (Mean) | 6.56 ms-squared | Standard Deviation 0.9 |
| Virtual Reality Simulation of Neighborhood Affluence | Respiratory Sinus Arrhythmia (RSA) | RSA, Video, Second 15 Minutes (Mean) | 6.90 ms-squared | Standard Deviation 0.9 |
| Virtual Reality Simulation of Neighborhood Affluence | Respiratory Sinus Arrhythmia (RSA) | RSA, Baseline (Mean) | 6.31 ms-squared | Standard Deviation 1.12 |
| Virtual Reality Simulation of Neighborhood Affluence | Respiratory Sinus Arrhythmia (RSA) | RSA, VR neighborhood (Mean) | 6.69 ms-squared | Standard Deviation 1.15 |
| Virtual Reality Simulation of Neighborhood Affluence | Respiratory Sinus Arrhythmia (RSA) | RSA, Questionnaires (Mean) | 6.65 ms-squared | Standard Deviation 1.16 |
| Virtual Reality Simulation of Neighborhood Affluence | Respiratory Sinus Arrhythmia (RSA) | RSA, Video, First 15 Minutes (Mean) | 6.79 ms-squared | Standard Deviation 1.04 |
Primary
Salivary Cortisol
Concentration of the stress hormone cortisol in saliva samples, measured in (µg/dL), that participants provide over the course of the study session to assess cortisol response
Time frame: Measured 5 times: (1) end of baseline, (2) after virtual reality (VR) neighborhood (VR: 11 minutes, average), (3) after questionnaires (26 minutes after VR end, average), (4) video (recovery), after first 15 minutes, (5) after final 15 minutes of video
Population: Two participants (one from each arm) were excluded from analyses due to major technical problems / glitches in virtual reality that lead to invalid data. Sixteen participants (7 in virtual affluent condition, 9 in virtual disadvantaged condition) were removed due potential contamination between saliva samples across time in the study session.
| Arm | Measure | Group | Value (MEAN) | Dispersion |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Virtual Reality Simulation of Neighborhood Disadvantage | Salivary Cortisol | Video, After 30 minutes | 0.279 µg/dL | Standard Deviation 0.542 |
| Virtual Reality Simulation of Neighborhood Disadvantage | Salivary Cortisol | Baseline (end) | 0.121 µg/dL | Standard Deviation 0.063 |
| Virtual Reality Simulation of Neighborhood Disadvantage | Salivary Cortisol | Virtual Reality Neighborhood (immediately after) | 0.134 µg/dL | Standard Deviation 0.066 |
| Virtual Reality Simulation of Neighborhood Disadvantage | Salivary Cortisol | Questionnaire completion | 0.251 µg/dL | Standard Deviation 0.333 |
| Virtual Reality Simulation of Neighborhood Disadvantage | Salivary Cortisol | Video, After 15 minutes | 0.261 µg/dL | Standard Deviation 0.419 |
| Virtual Reality Simulation of Neighborhood Affluence | Salivary Cortisol | Video, After 15 minutes | 0.361 µg/dL | Standard Deviation 0.584 |
| Virtual Reality Simulation of Neighborhood Affluence | Salivary Cortisol | Questionnaire completion | 0.287 µg/dL | Standard Deviation 0.395 |
| Virtual Reality Simulation of Neighborhood Affluence | Salivary Cortisol | Baseline (end) | 0.135 µg/dL | Standard Deviation 0.123 |
| Virtual Reality Simulation of Neighborhood Affluence | Salivary Cortisol | Video, After 30 minutes | 0.286 µg/dL | Standard Deviation 0.473 |
| Virtual Reality Simulation of Neighborhood Affluence | Salivary Cortisol | Virtual Reality Neighborhood (immediately after) | 0.182 µg/dL | Standard Deviation 0.156 |
Primary
Total Peripheral Resistance (TPR)
Total peripheral resistance (TPR) is an index of an index of vasoconstriction (mean arterial pressure divided by cardiac output). Increasing values indicate greater vasoconstriction. Derived from impedance cardiography signals measured and and then summarized across epochs in the study session.
Time frame: Measured in 5 epochs, typical 60-90 minutes total: (1) Baseline before virtual reality (VR), (2) VR neighborhood (11 minutes, average), (3) Questionnaires (begins 6 minutes after VR end, average), (4) Video: first 15 minutes, (5) Video, final 15 minutes
Population: Two participants (one from each arm) were excluded from analyses due to major technical problems / glitches in virtual reality that lead to invalid data. One participant had technical problems led to data not being recorded, and four had minimal or low quality signal recorded across data collection.
| Arm | Measure | Group | Value (MEAN) | Dispersion |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Virtual Reality Simulation of Neighborhood Disadvantage | Total Peripheral Resistance (TPR) | TPR, VR neighborhood (mean) | 19.62 mmHg*min/L | Standard Deviation 8.28 |
| Virtual Reality Simulation of Neighborhood Disadvantage | Total Peripheral Resistance (TPR) | TPR, Video, First 15 Minutes (mean) | 19.07 mmHg*min/L | Standard Deviation 9.65 |
| Virtual Reality Simulation of Neighborhood Disadvantage | Total Peripheral Resistance (TPR) | TPR, Questionnaires (mean) | 18.29 mmHg*min/L | Standard Deviation 7.55 |
| Virtual Reality Simulation of Neighborhood Disadvantage | Total Peripheral Resistance (TPR) | TPR, Video, Second 15 Minutes (mean) | 17.96 mmHg*min/L | Standard Deviation 9.21 |
| Virtual Reality Simulation of Neighborhood Disadvantage | Total Peripheral Resistance (TPR) | TPR, Baseline (mean) | 18.82 mmHg*min/L | Standard Deviation 8.88 |
| Virtual Reality Simulation of Neighborhood Affluence | Total Peripheral Resistance (TPR) | TPR, Video, Second 15 Minutes (mean) | 18.88 mmHg*min/L | Standard Deviation 9.29 |
| Virtual Reality Simulation of Neighborhood Affluence | Total Peripheral Resistance (TPR) | TPR, Baseline (mean) | 19.29 mmHg*min/L | Standard Deviation 12.8 |
| Virtual Reality Simulation of Neighborhood Affluence | Total Peripheral Resistance (TPR) | TPR, VR neighborhood (mean) | 18.05 mmHg*min/L | Standard Deviation 9.19 |
| Virtual Reality Simulation of Neighborhood Affluence | Total Peripheral Resistance (TPR) | TPR, Questionnaires (mean) | 18.04 mmHg*min/L | Standard Deviation 10.04 |
| Virtual Reality Simulation of Neighborhood Affluence | Total Peripheral Resistance (TPR) | TPR, Video, First 15 Minutes (mean) | 18.83 mmHg*min/L | Standard Deviation 9.79 |