Heart Rate Variability
Conditions
Keywords
heart rate variability, HRV
Brief summary
Previous research suggests that heart rate variability (HRV) biofeedback aimed at increasing HRV can reduce anxiety and stress. However, some mental quiescence practices that reduce HRV during the practice sessions also lead to positive emotional outcomes. Thus, it is not obvious that the benefits of HRV-biofeedback accrue due to increasing HRV during the session. An alternative possibility is that the benefits arise from engaging prefrontal control over heart rate. In this study, the investigators will test two possible mechanisms of the effects of HRV on emotional health by comparing two groups. In one group, participants will be asked to engage in daily training to decrease HRV using the HRV biofeedback device. In the other group, participants will be asked to engage in daily training to increase HRV using the HRV biofeedback device. This will allow analyses to pit two possible mechanisms against each other: 1. Mechanism 1: engaging prefrontal control over heart rate is the critical factor that allows HRV biofeedback to help improve well-being. In this case, well-being should increase over time in both groups, as both training should engage prefrontal cortex to implement self-directed control over heart rate. Strengthening prefrontal control mechanisms may help improve emotion regulation in everyday life. 2. Mechanism 2: increased HRV during the training sessions leads to greater functional connectivity among brain regions associated with emotion regulation during the high HRV state. In this case, improved well-being would be specifically associated with having time each day during which there were very high HRV states, and so improved well-being should be seen only in the group in which participants get biofeedback to increase HRV.
Interventions
BEHAVIORALHRV training
Participants will be asked to undergo daily practice to regulate (either increase or decrease) HRV for 5 weeks.
Sponsors
University of Southern California
Study design
Allocation
RANDOMIZED
Intervention model
PARALLEL
Primary purpose
BASIC_SCIENCE
Masking
SINGLE (Subject)
Intervention model description
Participants will be randomly assigned to either the HRV-increase group or the HRV-decrease group.
Eligibility
Sex/Gender
ALL
Age
18 Years to 80 Years
Healthy volunteers
Yes
Inclusion criteria
* Fluent in English * Aged between 18-35 for the younger group and aged between 55-80 for the older group * Scores on TELE indicate no current dementia * Normal or corrected-to-normal vision and hearing * People taking antidepressant, anti-anxiety medication and/or attending psychotherapy only if the treatment had been ongoing and unchanged for at least three months
Exclusion criteria
* Have a disorder that would impede performing the HRV biofeedback procedures (i.e., abnormal cardiac rhythm, heart disease including coronary artery disease, angina, and arrhythmia, cardiac pacemaker, stroke, panic attack, cognitive impairment). * Current practice of any relaxation, biofeedback, or breathing technique. * Currently taking any psychoactive drugs other than antidepressants or anti-anxiety medications * No trips that would lead them to miss any of the weekly meetings * Currently nursing, pregnant, or intend to become pregnant * Have metals in their body, as this is a scanning requirement * Have any conditions listed in the MRI Screening form (see below) MRI screening * Cardiac pacemaker * Implanted cardiac defibrillator * Aneurysm clip or brain clip * Carotid artery vascular clamp * Neurostimulator * Insulin or infusion pump * Spinal fusion stimulator * Cochlear, otologic, ear tubes or ear implant * Prosthesis (eye/orbital, penile, etc.) * Implant held in place by a magnet * Heart valve prosthesis * Artificial limb or joint * Other implants in body or head * Electrodes (on body, head or brain) * Intravascular stents, filters, or * Shunt (spinal or intraventricular) * Vascular access port or catheters * IUD or diaphragm * Transdermal delivery system or other types of foil * patches (e.g. Nitro, Nicotine, Birth control, etc.) * Shrapnel, buckshot, or bullets * Tattooed eyeliner or eyebrows * Body piercing(s) * Metal fragments (eye, head, ear, skin) * Internal pacing wires * Aortic clips * Metal or wire mesh implants * Wire sutures or surgical staples * Harrington rods (spine) * Bone/joint pin, screw, nail, wire, plate * Wig, toupee, or hair implants * Asthma or breathing disorders * Seizures or motion disorders * Hospitalization for mental or neurological illness * Head Trauma * Migraine Headache * Panic attack * Stroke
Design outcomes
Primary
| Measure | Time frame | Description |
|---|---|---|
| mPFC-right Amygdala Resting-state Functional Connectivity for Younger Adults (ANOVA) | Time 1 (Baseline), Time 2 (5 weeks) | The strength of resting-state functional connectivity was measured by correlation coefficients. Values represent the correlation of BOLD time-series between mPFC and the right amygdala. Higher values indicate greater connectivity. |
| mPFC-right Amygdala Resting-state Functional Connectivity for Older Adults (Post-Pre) | Time 1 (Baseline), Time 2 (5 weeks) | The strength of resting-state functional connectivity between mPFC and the right amygdala was measured by correlation coefficients. The difference in functional connectivity between the two time points (Time 2 - Time 1) was calculated. Higher values indicate greater connectivity at Time 2 than Time 1 (or post- than pre-intervention). |
| mPFC-right Amygdala Resting-state Functional Connectivity for Younger Adults (Post-Pre) | Time 1 (Baseline), Time 2 (5 weeks) | The strength of resting-state functional connectivity between mPFC and the right amygdala was measured by correlation coefficients. The difference in functional connectivity between the two time points (Time 2 - Time 1) was calculated. Higher values indicate greater connectivity at Time 2 than Time 1 (or post- than pre-intervention). |
| mPFC-right Amygdala Resting-state Functional Connectivity for Older Adults (ANOVA) | Time 1 (Baseline), Time 2 (5 weeks) | The strength of resting-state functional connectivity was measured by correlation coefficients. Values represent the correlation of BOLD time-series between mPFC and the right amygdala. Higher values indicate greater connectivity. |
Secondary
| Measure | Time frame | Description |
|---|---|---|
| Cortical Volume in the Left Orbitofrontal Cortex for Older Adults | Time 1 (Baseline), Time 2 (5 weeks) | Left orbitofrontal volume at pre- and post-intervention was compared between the HRV-increase and HRV-decrease groups in older adults. |
| Plasma Amyloid Beta 42 (Aβ42) Younger Adults | Time 1 (Baseline), Time 2 (5 weeks) | Plasma Aβ42 levels at pre- and post-intervention were compared between HRV-increase and HRV-decrease group for younger adults. |
| Plasma Amyloid Beta 42 (Aβ42) for Older Adults | Time 1 (Baseline), Time 2 (5 weeks) | Plasma Aβ42 levels at pre- and post-intervention were compared between HRV-increase and HRV-decrease group for older adults. |
| Plasma Phosphorylated Tau 181 (pTau) for Younger Adults | Time 1 (Baseline), Time 2 (5 weeks) | Plasma pTau levels at pre- and post-intervention were reported for HRV-increase and HRV-decrease group for younger adults. |
| Plasma Phosphorylated Tau 181 (pTau) for Older Adults | Time 1 (Baseline), Time 2 (5 weeks) | Plasma pTau levels at pre- and post-intervention were compared between HRV-increase and HRV-decrease group for older adults. |
| Plasma Total Tau (tTau) for Younger Adults | Time 1 (Baseline), Time 2 (5 weeks) | Plasma tTau levels at pre- and post-intervention were reported for HRV-increase and HRV-decrease group for younger adults. |
| Plasma Total Tau (tTau) for Older Adults | Time 1 (Baseline), Time 2 (5 weeks) | Plasma tTau levels at pre- and post-intervention were compared between HRV-increase and HRV-decrease group for older adults. |
| LC-innervated Subregion Volume in the Hippocampus for Younger Adults | Time 1 (Baseline), Time 2 (5 weeks) | LC-innervated subregion volume in the hippocampus at pre- and post-intervention was compared between the HRV-increase and HRV-decrease groups in younger adults. |
| LC-innervated Subregion Volume in the Hippocampus for Older Adults | Time 1 (Baseline), Time 2 (5 weeks) | LC-innervated subregion volume in the hippocampus at pre- and post-intervention was compared between the HRV-increase and HRV-decrease groups in older adults. |
| Cortical Volume in the Left Orbitofrontal Cortex for Younger Adults | Time 1 (Baseline), Time 2 (5 weeks) | Left orbitofrontal volume at pre- and post-intervention was compared between the HRV-increase and HRV-decrease groups in younger adults. |
| Cortical Volume in the Right Orbitofrontal Cortex for Younger Adults | Time 1 (Baseline), Time 2 (5 weeks) | Right orbitofrontal volume at pre- and post-intervention was compared between the HRV-increase and HRV-decrease groups in younger adults. |
| Cortical Volume in the Right Orbitofrontal Cortex for Older Adults | Time 1 (Baseline), Time 2 (5 weeks) | Right orbitofrontal volume at pre- and post-intervention was compared between the HRV-increase and HRV-decrease groups in older adults. |
| mPFC-left Amygdala Resting-state Functional Connectivity for Younger Adults (Post-Pre) | Time 1 (Baseline), Time 2 (5 weeks) | The strength of resting-state functional connectivity between mPFC and the left amygdala was measured by correlation coefficients. The difference in functional connectivity between the two time points (Time 2 - Time 1) was calculated. Higher values indicate greater connectivity at Time 2 than Time 1 (or post- than pre-intervention). |
| mPFC-left Amygdala Resting-state Functional Connectivity for Older Adults (Post-Pre) | Time 1 (Baseline), Time 2 (5 weeks) | The strength of resting-state functional connectivity between mPFC and the left amygdala was measured by correlation coefficients. The difference in functional connectivity between the two time points (Time 2 - Time 1) was calculated. Higher values indicate greater connectivity at Time 2 than Time 1 (or post- than pre-intervention). |
| mPFC-left Amygdala Resting-state Functional Connectivity for Younger Adults (ANOVA) | Time 1 (Baseline), Time 2 (5 weeks) | The strength of resting-state functional connectivity was measured by correlation coefficients. Values represent the correlation of BOLD time-series between mPFC and the left amygdala. Higher values indicate greater connectivity. |
| mPFC-left Amygdala Resting-state Functional Connectivity for Older Adults (ANOVA) | Time 1 (Baseline), Time 2 (5 weeks) | The strength of resting-state functional connectivity was measured by correlation coefficients. Values represent the correlation of BOLD time-series between mPFC and the left amygdala. Higher values indicate greater connectivity. |
| Emotion Regulation in Younger Adults (Behavior) | Time 1 (Baseline), Time 2 (5 weeks) | Emotional intensity ratings, which participants reported during the emotion regulation task inside MRI scanner before and after intervention. The ratings ranged from 1 through 4, and 4 represents strongest intensity. |
| Emotion Regulation in Older Adults (Behavior) | Time 1 (Baseline), Time 2 (5 weeks) | Emotional intensity ratings, which participants reported during the emotion regulation task inside MRI scanner before and after intervention. The ratings ranged from 1 through 4, and 4 represents strongest intensity. |
| Left Amygdala BOLD Activity During Emotion Regulation in Younger Adults | Time 1 (Baseline), Time 2 (5 weeks) | We measured percent changes (%) in BOLD activity in the left amygdala region during emotion down-regulation, viewing, and up-regulation before and after intervention. The viewing condition was used as a baseline during the task. The change is represented by %. |
| Left Amygdala BOLD Activity During Emotion Regulation in Older Adults | Time 1 (Baseline), Time 2 (5 weeks) | We measured percent changes (%) in BOLD activity in the left amygdala region during emotion down-regulation, viewing, and up-regulation before and after intervention. The viewing condition was used as a baseline during the task. The change is represented by %. |
| Right Amygdala BOLD Activity During Emotion Regulation in Younger Adults | Time 1 (Baseline), Time 2 (5 weeks) | We measured percent changes (%) in BOLD activity in the right amygdala region during emotion down-regulation, viewing, and up-regulation before and after intervention. The viewing condition was used as a baseline during the task. The change is represented by %. |
| Right Amygdala BOLD Activity During Emotion Regulation in Older Adults | Time 1 (Baseline), Time 2 (5 weeks) | We measured percent changes (%) in BOLD activity in the right amygdala region during emotion down-regulation, viewing, and up-regulation before and after intervention. The viewing condition was used as a baseline during the task. The change is represented by %. |
| Decision-making for Younger Adults at Post Intervention (Behavior) | one time point: at study completion, which is the end of 5-week training | The decision-making ability was measured by multiple-choice responses during a computer-based task. Median percentage of acceptance of unfair offers and fair offers were calculated. A higher percentage of accepted both unfair and fair offers points toward more rational decision-making and likely better emotion regulation. This task was administered only at post-intervention (but not pre-intervention). |
| Decision-making for Younger Adults (fMRI) | one time point: at study completion, which is the end of 5-week training | We measured percent changes (%) in BOLD activity in the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex and anterior insula during a computer-based decision-making task. Higher values indicate greater activity. |
| Mood for Younger Adults | Time 1 (Baseline), Time 2 (5 weeks) | Emotional well-being measured by the Profile of Mood States (POMS) for younger adults. The POMS consists of 40 items that are rated on a 5-point scale ranging from 0=not at all to 4=extremely. Total Mood Disturbance (TMD) was calculated by summing the totals for the negative items and then subtracting the totals for the positive items. A constant (i.e., 100) was added to the TMD formula in order to eliminate negative scores. Higher scores indicate more negative mood states. The scores range from 56 and 216. |
| Mood for Older Adults | Time 1 (Baseline), Time 2 (5 weeks) | Emotional well-being measured by the Profile of Mood States (POMS) for older adults. The POMS consists of 40 items that are rated on a 5-point scale ranging from 0=not at all to 4=extremely. Total Mood Disturbance (TMD) was calculated by summing the totals for the negative items and then subtracting the totals for the positive items. A constant (i.e., 100) was added to the TMD formula in order to eliminate negative scores. Higher scores indicate more negative mood states. The scores range from 56 and 216. |
| Depression for Younger Adults | Time 1 (Baseline), Time 2 (5 weeks) | Emotional well-being measured by the Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale (CES-D) for younger adults. The CES-D consists of 20 items that are rated on a scale of 0 to 3 (0 = Rarely or None of the Time, 1 = Some or Little of the Time, 2 = Moderately or Much of the time, 3 = Most or Almost All the Time). Possible range of scores is 0 to 60, with the higher scores indicating more depressive symptoms. |
| Depression for Older Adults | Time 1 (Baseline), Time 2 (5 weeks) | Emotional well-being measured by the Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale (CES-D) for older adults. The CES-D consists of 20 items that are rated on a scale of 0 to 3 (0 = Rarely or None of the Time, 1 = Some or Little of the Time, 2 = Moderately or Much of the time, 3 = Most or Almost All the Time). Possible range of scores is 0 to 60, with the higher scores indicating more depressive symptoms. |
| State Anxiety for Younger Adults | Time 1 (Baseline), Time 2 (5 weeks) | Emotional well-being measured by the State Anxiety Inventory (SAI) for younger adults. The SAI consists of 20 items that are rated on a 4-point scale as follows: 1) not at all, 2) somewhat, 3) moderately so, and 4) very much so. Scores range from 20 to 80, with higher scores indicating greater state anxiety. |
| State Anxiety for Older Adults | Time 1 (Baseline), Time 2 (5 weeks) | Emotional well-being measured by the State Anxiety Inventory (SAI) for older adults. The SAI consists of 20 items that are rated on a 4-point scale as follows: 1) not at all, 2) somewhat, 3) moderately so, and 4) very much so. Scores range from 20 to 80, with higher scores indicating greater state anxiety. |
| Trait Anxiety for Younger Adults | Time 1 (Baseline), Time 2 (5 weeks) | Emotional well-being measured by the Trait Anxiety Inventory (TAI) for younger adults. The TAI consists of 20 items that are rated on a 4-point scale as follows: 1) not at all, 2) somewhat, 3) moderately so, and 4) very much so. Scores range from 20 to 80, with higher scores indicating greater trait anxiety. |
| Trait Anxiety for Older Adults | Time 1 (Baseline), Time 2 (5 weeks) | Emotional well-being measured by the Trait Anxiety Inventory (TAI) for older adults. The TAI consists of 20 items that are rated on a 4-point scale as follows: 1) not at all, 2) somewhat, 3) moderately so, and 4) very much so. Scores range from 20 to 80, with higher scores indicating greater trait anxiety. |
| Stress Recovery (Systolic Blood Pressure) for Younger Adults | Time 1 (Baseline), Time 2 (5 weeks) | Difference in stress recovery elicited by standard cognitive tasks, as assessed by change in systolic blood pressure from cognitive tasks to recovery rest |
| Stress Recovery (Systolic Blood Pressure) for Older Adults | Time 1 (Baseline), Time 2 (5 weeks) | Difference in stress recovery elicited by standard cognitive tasks, as assessed by change in systolic blood pressure from cognitive tasks to recovery rest |
| Stress Recovery (Heart Rate) for Younger Adults | Time 1 (Baseline), Time 2 (5 weeks) | Difference in stress recovery elicited by standard cognitive tasks, as assessed by change in heart rate from cognitive tasks to recovery rest |
| Stress Recovery (Heart Rate) for Older Adults | Time 1 (Baseline), Time 2 (5 weeks) | Difference in stress recovery elicited by standard cognitive tasks, as assessed by change in heart rate from cognitive tasks to recovery rest |
| Stress Recovery (Breathing Rate) for Younger Adults | Time 1 (Baseline), Time 2 (5 weeks) | Difference in stress recovery elicited by standard cognitive tasks, as assessed by change in breathing rate from cognitive tasks to recovery rest |
| Stress Recovery (Breathing Rate) for Older Adults | Time 1 (Baseline), Time 2 (5 weeks) | Difference in stress recovery elicited by standard cognitive tasks, as assessed by change in breathing rate from cognitive tasks to recovery rest |
| Stress Reactivity (Systolic Blood Pressure) for Younger Adults | Time 1 (Baseline), Time 2 (5 weeks) | Difference in stress reactivity elicited by standard cognitive tasks, as assessed by change in systolic blood pressure from rest to cognitive tasks |
| Stress Reactivity (Systolic Blood Pressure) for Older Adults | Time 1 (Baseline), Time 2 (5 weeks) | Difference in stress reactivity elicited by standard cognitive tasks, as assessed by change in systolic blood pressure from rest to cognitive tasks |
| Stress Reactivity (Heart Rate) for Younger Adults | Time 1 (Baseline), Time 2 (5 weeks) | Difference in stress reactivity elicited by standard cognitive tasks, as assessed by change in heart rate from rest to cognitive tasks |
| Stress Reactivity (Heart Rate) for Older Adults | Time 1 (Baseline), Time 2 (5 weeks) | Difference in stress reactivity elicited by standard cognitive tasks, as assessed by change in heart rate from cognitive tasks to recovery rest |
| Stress Reactivity (Breathing Rate) for Younger Adults | Time 1 (Baseline), Time 2 (5 weeks) | Difference in stress reactivity elicited by standard cognitive tasks, as assessed by change in breathing rate from rest to cognitive tasks |
| Stress Reactivity (Breathing Rate) for Older Adults | Time 1 (Baseline), Time 2 (5 weeks) | Difference in stress reactivity elicited by standard cognitive tasks, as assessed by change in breathing rate from rest to cognitive tasks |
| Arterial Spin Labeling (ASL) for Younger Adults | Time 1 (Baseline), Time 2 (5 weeks) | Cerebral blood flow was measured at pre-training resting state and post-training paced-breathing. |
| Arterial Spin Labeling (ASL) for Older Adults | Time 1 (Baseline), Time 2 (5 weeks) | Cerebral blood flow was measured at pre-training resting state and post-training paced-breathing. |
| High Frequency (HF) HRV for Younger Adults | Time 1 (Baseline), Time 2 (5 weeks) | HRV measured by high frequency (HF) HRV for younger adults. HF-HRV was quantified as the spectral power of interbeat interval variability within the high frequency range (typically 0.15-0.40 Hz), which reflects parasympathetic (vagal) activity. In this study, HF-HRV was obtained using photoplethysmography (PPG) methods. During a standardized resting condition, the device continuously recorded interbeat intervals. These data were then processed via spectral analysis to calculate the power in the high frequency band. Measurements are expressed in units of milliseconds squared (ms²). Higher HF-HRV values indicate increased parasympathetic modulation and are generally associated with improved autonomic regulation and better cognitive performance. |
| High Frequency (HF) HRV for Older Adults | Time 1 (Baseline), Time 2 (5 weeks) | HRV measured by high frequency (HF) HRV for older adults. HF-HRV was quantified as the spectral power of interbeat interval variability within the high frequency range (typically 0.15-0.40 Hz), which reflects parasympathetic (vagal) activity. In this study, HF-HRV was obtained using photoplethysmography (PPG) methods. During a standardized resting condition, the device continuously recorded interbeat intervals. These data were then processed via spectral analysis to calculate the power in the high frequency band. Measurements are expressed in units of milliseconds squared (ms²). Higher HF-HRV values indicate increased parasympathetic modulation and are generally associated with improved autonomic regulation and better cognitive performance. |
| Inflammation Measured by TNF-a Levels for Older Adults | Time 1 (Baseline), Time 2 (5 weeks) | Inflammation measured by salivary TNF-a levels for older adults |
| Low Frequency (LF) HRV for Younger Adults | Time 1 (Baseline), Time 2 (5 weeks) | HRV measured by low frequency (LF) HRV for younger adults. LF-HRV was quantified as the spectral power of interbeat interval variability within the low frequency range (typically 0.04-0.15 Hz), which reflects the combined influences of sympathetic and parasympathetic activity. In this study, LF-HRV was obtained using photoplethysmography (PPG) methods. During a standardized resting condition, the device continuously recorded interbeat intervals. These data were then processed via spectral analysis to calculate the power in the low frequency band. Measurements are expressed in units of milliseconds squared (ms²). Although LF-HRV reflects contributions from both branches of the autonomic nervous system, higher LF-HRV values can indicate enhanced autonomic modulation, with interpretation made in the context of overall autonomic balance. |
| Low Frequency (LF) HRV for Older Adults | Time 1 (Baseline), Time 2 (5 weeks) | HRV measured by low frequency (LF) HRV for older adults. LF-HRV was quantified as the spectral power of interbeat interval variability within the low frequency range (typically 0.04-0.15 Hz), which reflects the combined influences of sympathetic and parasympathetic activity. In this study, LF-HRV was obtained using photoplethysmography (PPG) methods. During a standardized resting condition, the device continuously recorded interbeat intervals. These data were then processed via spectral analysis to calculate the power in the low frequency band. Measurements are expressed in units of milliseconds squared (ms²). Although LF-HRV reflects contributions from both branches of the autonomic nervous system, higher LF-HRV values can indicate enhanced autonomic modulation, with interpretation made in the context of overall autonomic balance. |
| The Root Mean Squared Successive Differences (RMSSD) HRV for Younger Adults | Time 1 (Baseline), Time 2 (5 weeks) | HRV measured by the root mean square of successive differences (RMSSD) for younger adults. RMSSD (Root Mean Square of Successive Differences) is a time-domain measure that quantifies the variability between successive interbeat intervals, primarily reflecting parasympathetic (vagal) activity. In this study, RMSSD was obtained using photoplethysmography (PPG) methods. During a standardized resting condition, the device continuously recorded interbeat intervals, and RMSSD was computed as the square root of the mean of the squared differences between consecutive interbeat intervals. Measurements are expressed in milliseconds (ms). Higher RMSSD values indicate increased parasympathetic modulation, generally associated with improved autonomic regulation and better cardiovascular and cognitive performance. |
| The Root Mean Squared Successive Differences (RMSSD) HRV for Older Adults | Time 1 (Baseline), Time 2 (5 weeks) | HRV measured by the root mean square of successive differences (RMSSD) for older adults. RMSSD (Root Mean Square of Successive Differences) is a time-domain measure that quantifies the variability between successive interbeat intervals, primarily reflecting parasympathetic (vagal) activity. In this study, RMSSD was obtained using photoplethysmography (PPG) methods. During a standardized resting condition, the device continuously recorded interbeat intervals, and RMSSD was computed as the square root of the mean of the squared differences between consecutive interbeat intervals. Measurements are expressed in milliseconds (ms). Higher RMSSD values indicate increased parasympathetic modulation, generally associated with improved autonomic regulation and better cardiovascular and cognitive performance. |
| Inflammation Measured by C-reactive Protein for Younger Adults | Time 1 (Baseline), Time 2 (5 weeks) | Inflammation measured by salivary C-reactive protein (CRP) for younger adults |
| Inflammation Measured by C-reactive Protein for Older Adults | Time 1 (Baseline), Time 2 (5 weeks) | Inflammation measured by salivary C-reactive protein (CRP) for older adults |
| Inflammation Measured by IL-1b Levels for Younger Adults | Time 1 (Baseline), Time 2 (5 weeks) | Inflammation measured by salivary IL-1b levels for younger adults |
| Inflammation Measured by IL-1b Levels for Older Adults | Time 1 (Baseline), Time 2 (5 weeks) | Inflammation measured by salivary IL-1b levels for older adults |
| Inflammation Measured by IL-6 Levels for Younger Adults | Time 1 (Baseline), Time 2 (5 weeks) | Inflammation measured by salivary IL-6 levels for younger adults |
| Inflammation Measured by IL-6 Levels for Older Adults | Time 1 (Baseline), Time 2 (5 weeks) | Inflammation measured by salivary IL-6 levels for older adults |
| Inflammation Measured by IL-8 Levels for Younger Adults | Time 1 (Baseline), Time 2 (5 weeks) | Inflammation measured by salivary IL-8 levels for younger adults |
| Inflammation Measured by IL-8 Levels for Older Adults | Time 1 (Baseline), Time 2 (5 weeks) | Inflammation measured by salivary IL-8 levels for older adults |
| Inflammation Measured by TNF-a Levels for Younger Adults | Time 1 (Baseline), Time 2 (5 weeks) | Inflammation measured by salivary TNF-a levels for younger adults |
| Plasma Amyloid Beta 40 (Aβ40) for Younger Adults | Time 1 (Baseline), Time 2 (5 weeks) | Plasma Aβ40 levels at pre- and post-intervention were compared between HRV-increase and HRV-decrease group for younger adults. |
| Plasma Amyloid Beta 40 (Aβ40) for Older Adults | Time 1 (Baseline), Time 2 (5 weeks) | Plasma Aβ40 levels at pre- and post-intervention were compared between HRV-increase and HRV-decrease group for older adults. |
Other
| Measure | Time frame | Description |
|---|---|---|
| Inhibitory Control and Attention for Older Adults | Time 1 (Baseline), Time 2 (5 weeks) | Inhibitory control performance measured by NIH Toolbox Flanker Inhibitory Control and Attention Test (Flanker). The standard score is calculated to have a normative mean of 100 and a standard deviation (SD) of 15. Scores range from 59 to 140, with higher scores indicating better Inhibitory Control and Attention. |
| Sustained Attention for Younger Adults | Time 1 (Baseline), Time 2 (5 weeks) | Sustained attention performance was measured by Sustained Attention to Response Test (SART). A commission error was calculated as the number of button press for 25 no-go trials, and an omission error was calculated as the number of no button press for 200 go trials in younger adults. The number of errors range from 0 to 25 for commission errors and from 0 to 200 for omission errors. A higher number of omission and commission errors indicates worse sustained attention performance. |
| Sustained Attention for Older Adults | Time 1 (Baseline), Time 2 (5 weeks) | Sustained attention performance was measured by Sustained Attention to Response Test (SART). A commission error was calculated as the number of button press for 25 no-go trials, and an omission error was calculated as the number of no button press for 200 go trials in older adults. The number of errors range from 0 to 25 for commission errors and from 0 to 200 for omission errors. A higher number of omission and commission errors indicates worse sustained attention performance. |
| Recognition Memory for Younger Adults (Hits) | Week 5 Lab Visit (after about 2.5-3 weeks of training) | Recognition memory performance based on average proportion of previously presented images that were correctly identified (i.e., hits) by younger adults |
| Recognition Memory for Older Adults (Hits) | Week 5 Lab Visit (after about 2.5-3 weeks of training) | Recognition memory performance based on average proportion of previously presented images that were correctly identified (i.e., hits) by older adults |
| Recognition Memory for Younger Adults (False Alarm) | Week 5 Lab Visit (after about 2.5-3 weeks of training) | Recognition memory performance based on average proportion of images not previously presented that were incorrectly identified as seen (i.e., False Alarms) by younger adults |
| Recognition Memory for Older Adults (False Alarm) | Week 5 Lab Visit (after about 2.5-3 weeks of training) | Recognition memory performance based on average proportion of images not previously presented that were incorrectly identified as seen (i.e., False Alarms) by older adults |
| Recall Memory for Younger Adults | Week 5 Lab Visit (after about 2.5-3 weeks of training) | Average proportion of previously presented images that were correctly recalled by younger adults |
| Recall Memory for Older Adults | Week 5 Lab Visit (after about 2.5-3 weeks of training) | Average proportion of previously presented images that were correctly recalled by older adults |
| Stress Measured by Cortisol Levels for Younger Adults | Time 1 (Baseline), Time 2 (5 weeks) | Stress measured by salivary cortisol levels for younger adults |
| Inhibitory Control and Attention for Younger Adults | Time 1 (Baseline), Time 2 (5 weeks) | Inhibitory control performance measured by NIH Toolbox Flanker Inhibitory Control and Attention Test (Flanker). The standard score is calculated to have a normative mean of 100 and a standard deviation (SD) of 15. Scores range from 59 to 140, with higher scores indicating better Inhibitory Control and Attention. |
| Processing Speed for Older Adults | Time 1 (Baseline), Time 2 (5 weeks) | Processing speed performance measured by NIH Toolbox Pattern Comparison Processing Speed Test (PCPS). The standard score is calculated to have a normative mean of 100 and a standard deviation (SD) of 15. Scores range from 59 to 140, with higher scores indicating faster processing speed. |
| Working Memory for Younger Adults | Time 1 (Baseline), Time 2 (5 weeks) | Working memory performance measured by NIH Toolbox List Sorting Working Memory Test (LSWM). The standard score is calculated to have a normative mean of 100 and a standard deviation (SD) of 15. Scores range from 59 to 140, with higher scores indicating better Working memory. |
| Processing Speed for Younger Adults | Time 1 (Baseline), Time 2 (5 weeks) | Processing speed performance measured by NIH Toolbox Pattern Comparison Processing Speed Test (PCPS). The standard score is calculated to have a normative mean of 100 and a standard deviation (SD) of 15. Scores range from 59 to 140, with higher scores indicating faster processing speed. |
| Working Memory for Older Adults | Time 1 (Baseline), Time 2 (5 weeks) | Working memory performance measured by NIH Toolbox List Sorting Working Memory Test (LSWM). The standard score is calculated to have a normative mean of 100 and a standard deviation (SD) of 15. Scores range from 59 to 140, with higher scores indicating better Working memory. |
Countries
United States
Participant flow
Participants by arm
| Arm | Count |
|---|---|
| Younger HRV-increase Group Participants in this group were between the ages of 18 and 35.
Half of the younger participants were randomly assigned to this group and underwent daily practice to increase their heart rate variability (HRV) for 5 weeks. | 63 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group Participants in this group were between the ages of 18 and 35.
Half of the younger participants were randomly assigned to this group and underwent daily practice to decrease their heart rate variability (HRV) for 5 weeks. | 58 |
| Older HRV-increase Group Participants in this group were between the ages of 55 and 80.
Half of the older participants were randomly assigned to this group and underwent daily practice to increase their heart rate variability (HRV) for 5 weeks. | 37 |
| Older HRV-decrease Group Participants in this group were between the ages of 55 and 80.
Half of the older participants were randomly assigned to this group and underwent daily practice to decrease their heart rate variability (HRV) for 5 weeks. | 35 |
| Total | 193 |
Withdrawals & dropouts
| Period | Reason | FG000 | FG001 | FG002 | FG003 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Overall Study | Study halted due to risk of catching COVID-19 | 0 | 0 | 3 | 3 |
| Overall Study | Withdrawal by Subject | 7 | 8 | 6 | 4 |
Baseline characteristics
| Characteristic | Younger HRV-increase Group | Younger HRV-decrease Group | Older HRV-increase Group | Older HRV-decrease Group | Total |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Age, Categorical <=18 years | 6 Participants | 4 Participants | 0 Participants | 0 Participants | 10 Participants |
| Age, Categorical >=65 years | 0 Participants | 0 Participants | 16 Participants | 21 Participants | 37 Participants |
| Age, Categorical Between 18 and 65 years | 57 Participants | 54 Participants | 21 Participants | 14 Participants | 146 Participants |
| Age, Continuous | 22.71 years STANDARD_DEVIATION 2.47 | 22.66 years STANDARD_DEVIATION 3.17 | 65.03 years STANDARD_DEVIATION 8.29 | 65.66 years STANDARD_DEVIATION 5.88 | 38.68 years STANDARD_DEVIATION 21.28 |
| Ethnicity (NIH/OMB) Hispanic or Latino | 2 Participants | 5 Participants | 2 Participants | 3 Participants | 12 Participants |
| Ethnicity (NIH/OMB) Not Hispanic or Latino | 55 Participants | 48 Participants | 35 Participants | 31 Participants | 169 Participants |
| Ethnicity (NIH/OMB) Unknown or Not Reported | 6 Participants | 5 Participants | 0 Participants | 1 Participants | 12 Participants |
| Race (NIH/OMB) American Indian or Alaska Native | 0 Participants | 0 Participants | 0 Participants | 0 Participants | 0 Participants |
| Race (NIH/OMB) Asian | 43 Participants | 38 Participants | 5 Participants | 6 Participants | 92 Participants |
| Race (NIH/OMB) Black or African American | 4 Participants | 0 Participants | 12 Participants | 2 Participants | 18 Participants |
| Race (NIH/OMB) More than one race | 2 Participants | 2 Participants | 2 Participants | 1 Participants | 7 Participants |
| Race (NIH/OMB) Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander | 0 Participants | 0 Participants | 0 Participants | 0 Participants | 0 Participants |
| Race (NIH/OMB) Unknown or Not Reported | 5 Participants | 5 Participants | 0 Participants | 1 Participants | 11 Participants |
| Race (NIH/OMB) White | 9 Participants | 13 Participants | 18 Participants | 25 Participants | 65 Participants |
| Region of Enrollment United States | 63 Participants | 58 Participants | 37 Participants | 35 Participants | 193 Participants |
| Sex: Female, Male Female | 31 Participants | 29 Participants | 24 Participants | 21 Participants | 105 Participants |
| Sex: Female, Male Male | 32 Participants | 29 Participants | 13 Participants | 14 Participants | 88 Participants |
Adverse events
| Event type | EG000 affected / at risk | EG001 affected / at risk | EG002 affected / at risk | EG003 affected / at risk |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| deaths Total, all-cause mortality | 0 / 63 | 0 / 58 | 0 / 37 | 0 / 35 |
| other Total, other adverse events | 0 / 63 | 0 / 58 | 0 / 37 | 0 / 35 |
| serious Total, serious adverse events | 0 / 63 | 0 / 58 | 0 / 37 | 0 / 35 |
Outcome results
Primary
mPFC-right Amygdala Resting-state Functional Connectivity for Older Adults (ANOVA)
The strength of resting-state functional connectivity was measured by correlation coefficients. Values represent the correlation of BOLD time-series between mPFC and the right amygdala. Higher values indicate greater connectivity.
Time frame: Time 1 (Baseline), Time 2 (5 weeks)
Population: Population analyzed was composed by all randomization subjects who completed pre- and post-intervention assessments and whose data quality was sufficient for data analysis.
| Arm | Measure | Group | Value (MEAN) | Dispersion |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Younger HRV-increase Group | mPFC-right Amygdala Resting-state Functional Connectivity for Older Adults (ANOVA) | Time 1 | 0.109 correlation coefficients | Standard Error 0.045 |
| Younger HRV-increase Group | mPFC-right Amygdala Resting-state Functional Connectivity for Older Adults (ANOVA) | Time 2 | 0.125 correlation coefficients | Standard Error 0.046 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | mPFC-right Amygdala Resting-state Functional Connectivity for Older Adults (ANOVA) | Time 1 | 0.140 correlation coefficients | Standard Error 0.046 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | mPFC-right Amygdala Resting-state Functional Connectivity for Older Adults (ANOVA) | Time 2 | 0.095 correlation coefficients | Standard Error 0.047 |
Comparison: A 2 (time: pre, post) X 2 (condition: HRV-increase, HRV-decrease) ANOVA was performed.p-value: 0.48ANOVA
Primary
mPFC-right Amygdala Resting-state Functional Connectivity for Older Adults (Post-Pre)
The strength of resting-state functional connectivity between mPFC and the right amygdala was measured by correlation coefficients. The difference in functional connectivity between the two time points (Time 2 - Time 1) was calculated. Higher values indicate greater connectivity at Time 2 than Time 1 (or post- than pre-intervention).
Time frame: Time 1 (Baseline), Time 2 (5 weeks)
Population: Population analyzed was composed by all randomization subjects who completed pre- and post-intervention assessments and whose data quality was sufficient for data analysis.
| Arm | Measure | Value (MEAN) | Dispersion |
|---|---|---|---|
| Younger HRV-increase Group | mPFC-right Amygdala Resting-state Functional Connectivity for Older Adults (Post-Pre) | 0.016 correlation coefficients | Standard Error 0.072 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | mPFC-right Amygdala Resting-state Functional Connectivity for Older Adults (Post-Pre) | -0.045 correlation coefficients | Standard Error 0.046 |
Comparison: An independent t-test was performed to compare the two groups.p-value: 0.48t-test, 2 sided
Primary
mPFC-right Amygdala Resting-state Functional Connectivity for Younger Adults (ANOVA)
The strength of resting-state functional connectivity was measured by correlation coefficients. Values represent the correlation of BOLD time-series between mPFC and the right amygdala. Higher values indicate greater connectivity.
Time frame: Time 1 (Baseline), Time 2 (5 weeks)
Population: Population analyzed was composed by all randomization subjects who completed pre- and post-intervention assessments and whose data quality was sufficient for data analysis.
| Arm | Measure | Group | Value (MEAN) | Dispersion |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Younger HRV-increase Group | mPFC-right Amygdala Resting-state Functional Connectivity for Younger Adults (ANOVA) | Time 1 | 0.104 correlation coefficients | Standard Error 0.105 |
| Younger HRV-increase Group | mPFC-right Amygdala Resting-state Functional Connectivity for Younger Adults (ANOVA) | Time 2 | 0.116 correlation coefficients | Standard Error 0.015 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | mPFC-right Amygdala Resting-state Functional Connectivity for Younger Adults (ANOVA) | Time 1 | 0.086 correlation coefficients | Standard Error 0.015 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | mPFC-right Amygdala Resting-state Functional Connectivity for Younger Adults (ANOVA) | Time 2 | 0.090 correlation coefficients | Standard Error 0.015 |
Comparison: A 2 (time: pre, post) X 2 (condition: HRV-increase, HRV-decrease) ANOVA was performed.p-value: 0.782ANOVA
Primary
mPFC-right Amygdala Resting-state Functional Connectivity for Younger Adults (Post-Pre)
The strength of resting-state functional connectivity between mPFC and the right amygdala was measured by correlation coefficients. The difference in functional connectivity between the two time points (Time 2 - Time 1) was calculated. Higher values indicate greater connectivity at Time 2 than Time 1 (or post- than pre-intervention).
Time frame: Time 1 (Baseline), Time 2 (5 weeks)
Population: Population analyzed was composed by all randomization subjects who completed pre- and post-intervention assessments and whose data quality was sufficient for data analysis.
| Arm | Measure | Value (MEAN) | Dispersion |
|---|---|---|---|
| Younger HRV-increase Group | mPFC-right Amygdala Resting-state Functional Connectivity for Younger Adults (Post-Pre) | 0.011 correlation coefficients | Standard Error 0.022 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | mPFC-right Amygdala Resting-state Functional Connectivity for Younger Adults (Post-Pre) | -0.016 correlation coefficients | Standard Error 0.024 |
Comparison: An independent t-test was performed to compare the two groups.p-value: 0.41t-test, 2 sided
Secondary
Arterial Spin Labeling (ASL) for Older Adults
Cerebral blood flow was measured at pre-training resting state and post-training paced-breathing.
Time frame: Time 1 (Baseline), Time 2 (5 weeks)
Population: Population analyzed was composed by all randomization subjects who completed pre- and post-intervention assessments and whose data quality was sufficient for data analysis.
| Arm | Measure | Group | Value (MEAN) | Dispersion |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Arterial Spin Labeling (ASL) for Older Adults | Time 1 | 42.06 mL/100 g/min | Standard Error 2.33 |
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Arterial Spin Labeling (ASL) for Older Adults | Time 2 | 30.95 mL/100 g/min | Standard Error 2.02 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Arterial Spin Labeling (ASL) for Older Adults | Time 2 | 39.93 mL/100 g/min | Standard Error 1.89 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Arterial Spin Labeling (ASL) for Older Adults | Time 1 | 40.86 mL/100 g/min | Standard Error 3.04 |
Comparison: 2 (time) x 2 (condition) ANOVA to test effects of time, condition, and time x condition interactionp-value: 0.000146ANOVA
Secondary
Arterial Spin Labeling (ASL) for Younger Adults
Cerebral blood flow was measured at pre-training resting state and post-training paced-breathing.
Time frame: Time 1 (Baseline), Time 2 (5 weeks)
Population: Population analyzed was composed by all randomization subjects who completed pre- and post-intervention assessments and whose data quality was sufficient for data analysis.
| Arm | Measure | Group | Value (MEAN) | Dispersion |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Arterial Spin Labeling (ASL) for Younger Adults | Time 1 | 44.01 mL/100 g/min | Standard Error 1.68 |
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Arterial Spin Labeling (ASL) for Younger Adults | Time 2 | 39.69 mL/100 g/min | Standard Error 1.61 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Arterial Spin Labeling (ASL) for Younger Adults | Time 1 | 40.96 mL/100 g/min | Standard Error 1.53 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Arterial Spin Labeling (ASL) for Younger Adults | Time 2 | 38.98 mL/100 g/min | Standard Error 1.48 |
Comparison: 2 (time) x 2 (condition) ANOVA to test effects of time, condition, and time x condition interactionp-value: 0.259ANOVA
Secondary
Cortical Volume in the Left Orbitofrontal Cortex for Older Adults
Left orbitofrontal volume at pre- and post-intervention was compared between the HRV-increase and HRV-decrease groups in older adults.
Time frame: Time 1 (Baseline), Time 2 (5 weeks)
| Arm | Measure | Group | Value (MEAN) | Dispersion |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Cortical Volume in the Left Orbitofrontal Cortex for Older Adults | Time 1 (pre-intervention) | 12369.59 mm^3 | Standard Error 146.4 |
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Cortical Volume in the Left Orbitofrontal Cortex for Older Adults | Time 2 (post-intervention) | 12452.50 mm^3 | Standard Error 152.74 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Cortical Volume in the Left Orbitofrontal Cortex for Older Adults | Time 1 (pre-intervention) | 12391.75 mm^3 | Standard Error 143.44 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Cortical Volume in the Left Orbitofrontal Cortex for Older Adults | Time 2 (post-intervention) | 12290.84 mm^3 | Standard Error 149.65 |
Secondary
Cortical Volume in the Left Orbitofrontal Cortex for Younger Adults
Left orbitofrontal volume at pre- and post-intervention was compared between the HRV-increase and HRV-decrease groups in younger adults.
Time frame: Time 1 (Baseline), Time 2 (5 weeks)
| Arm | Measure | Group | Value (MEAN) | Dispersion |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Cortical Volume in the Left Orbitofrontal Cortex for Younger Adults | Time 2 (post-intervention) | 14055.29 mm^3 | Standard Error 125.81 |
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Cortical Volume in the Left Orbitofrontal Cortex for Younger Adults | Time 1 (pre-intervention) | 14001.81 mm^3 | Standard Error 119.8 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Cortical Volume in the Left Orbitofrontal Cortex for Younger Adults | Time 1 (pre-intervention) | 14024.90 mm^3 | Standard Error 122.34 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Cortical Volume in the Left Orbitofrontal Cortex for Younger Adults | Time 2 (post-intervention) | 13878.29 mm^3 | Standard Error 128.47 |
Secondary
Cortical Volume in the Right Orbitofrontal Cortex for Older Adults
Right orbitofrontal volume at pre- and post-intervention was compared between the HRV-increase and HRV-decrease groups in older adults.
Time frame: Time 1 (Baseline), Time 2 (5 weeks)
| Arm | Measure | Group | Value (MEAN) | Dispersion |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Cortical Volume in the Right Orbitofrontal Cortex for Older Adults | Time 1 (pre-intervention) | 12246.75 mm^3 | Standard Error 150.82 |
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Cortical Volume in the Right Orbitofrontal Cortex for Older Adults | Time 2 (post-intervention) | 12278.02 mm^3 | Standard Error 157.55 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Cortical Volume in the Right Orbitofrontal Cortex for Older Adults | Time 1 (pre-intervention) | 12582.37 mm^3 | Standard Error 147.77 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Cortical Volume in the Right Orbitofrontal Cortex for Older Adults | Time 2 (post-intervention) | 12540.15 mm^3 | Standard Error 154.36 |
Secondary
Cortical Volume in the Right Orbitofrontal Cortex for Younger Adults
Right orbitofrontal volume at pre- and post-intervention was compared between the HRV-increase and HRV-decrease groups in younger adults.
Time frame: Time 1 (Baseline), Time 2 (5 weeks)
| Arm | Measure | Group | Value (MEAN) | Dispersion |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Cortical Volume in the Right Orbitofrontal Cortex for Younger Adults | Time 1 (pre-intervention) | 14231.64 mm^3 | Standard Error 132.05 |
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Cortical Volume in the Right Orbitofrontal Cortex for Younger Adults | Time 2 (post-intervention) | 14233.22 mm^3 | Standard Error 132.08 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Cortical Volume in the Right Orbitofrontal Cortex for Younger Adults | Time 2 (post-intervention) | 13898.56 mm^3 | Standard Error 134.87 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Cortical Volume in the Right Orbitofrontal Cortex for Younger Adults | Time 1 (pre-intervention) | 14005.03 mm^3 | Standard Error 134.84 |
Secondary
Decision-making for Younger Adults at Post Intervention (Behavior)
The decision-making ability was measured by multiple-choice responses during a computer-based task. Median percentage of acceptance of unfair offers and fair offers were calculated. A higher percentage of accepted both unfair and fair offers points toward more rational decision-making and likely better emotion regulation. This task was administered only at post-intervention (but not pre-intervention).
Time frame: one time point: at study completion, which is the end of 5-week training
Population: Population analyzed was composed by all randomization subjects who completed the decision making task, who were unfamiliar with the task and whose data quality was sufficient for data analysis.
| Arm | Measure | Group | Value (MEDIAN) |
|---|---|---|---|
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Decision-making for Younger Adults at Post Intervention (Behavior) | percentage of acceptance of fair offers | 100 percentage of offers |
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Decision-making for Younger Adults at Post Intervention (Behavior) | percentage of acceptance of unfair offers | 33.33 percentage of offers |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Decision-making for Younger Adults at Post Intervention (Behavior) | percentage of acceptance of fair offers | 100 percentage of offers |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Decision-making for Younger Adults at Post Intervention (Behavior) | percentage of acceptance of unfair offers | 33.33 percentage of offers |
Comparison: Comparing acceptance rate of fair offersp-value: 1Wilcoxon (Mann-Whitney)
Comparison: Comparing acceptance rate of unfair offersp-value: 0.716Wilcoxon (Mann-Whitney)
Secondary
Decision-making for Younger Adults (fMRI)
We measured percent changes (%) in BOLD activity in the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex and anterior insula during a computer-based decision-making task. Higher values indicate greater activity.
Time frame: one time point: at study completion, which is the end of 5-week training
Population: Population analyzed was composed by all randomization subjects who completed the decision making task, whose data quality was sufficient for data analysis and who were unfamiliar with the task.
| Arm | Measure | Group | Value (MEAN) | Dispersion |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Decision-making for Younger Adults (fMRI) | Dorsal anterior cingulate cortex activation | 0.1073 Percent changes (%) in BOLD signal | Standard Error 0.0221 |
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Decision-making for Younger Adults (fMRI) | Anterior insula activation | 0.0740 Percent changes (%) in BOLD signal | Standard Error 0.0214 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Decision-making for Younger Adults (fMRI) | Dorsal anterior cingulate cortex activation | 0.0177 Percent changes (%) in BOLD signal | Standard Error 0.0278 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Decision-making for Younger Adults (fMRI) | Anterior insula activation | 0.0135 Percent changes (%) in BOLD signal | Standard Error 0.0229 |
Comparison: An independent t-test was performed to compare the two groups for dorsal anterior cingulate cortex activation.p-value: 0.014t-test, 2 sided
Comparison: An independent t-test was performed to compare the two groups for anterior insula activation.p-value: 0.059t-test, 2 sided
Secondary
Depression for Older Adults
Emotional well-being measured by the Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale (CES-D) for older adults. The CES-D consists of 20 items that are rated on a scale of 0 to 3 (0 = Rarely or None of the Time, 1 = Some or Little of the Time, 2 = Moderately or Much of the time, 3 = Most or Almost All the Time). Possible range of scores is 0 to 60, with the higher scores indicating more depressive symptoms.
Time frame: Time 1 (Baseline), Time 2 (5 weeks)
| Arm | Measure | Group | Value (MEAN) | Dispersion |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Depression for Older Adults | Time 1 | 8.852 score on a scale | Standard Deviation 7.383 |
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Depression for Older Adults | Time 2 | 6.481 score on a scale | Standard Deviation 4.839 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Depression for Older Adults | Time 1 | 14.143 score on a scale | Standard Deviation 9.816 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Depression for Older Adults | Time 2 | 11.964 score on a scale | Standard Deviation 8.963 |
p-value: 0.916ANOVA
p-value: 0.235Mixed Models Analysis
Secondary
Depression for Younger Adults
Emotional well-being measured by the Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale (CES-D) for younger adults. The CES-D consists of 20 items that are rated on a scale of 0 to 3 (0 = Rarely or None of the Time, 1 = Some or Little of the Time, 2 = Moderately or Much of the time, 3 = Most or Almost All the Time). Possible range of scores is 0 to 60, with the higher scores indicating more depressive symptoms.
Time frame: Time 1 (Baseline), Time 2 (5 weeks)
Population: Population analyzed was composed by all randomization subjects who completed pre- and post-intervention assessments and whose data quality was sufficient for data analysis.
| Arm | Measure | Group | Value (MEAN) | Dispersion |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Depression for Younger Adults | Time 1 | 16.164 score on a scale | Standard Deviation 8.046 |
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Depression for Younger Adults | Time 2 | 13.218 score on a scale | Standard Deviation 8.774 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Depression for Younger Adults | Time 1 | 14.571 score on a scale | Standard Deviation 9.372 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Depression for Younger Adults | Time 2 | 11.837 score on a scale | Standard Deviation 8.88 |
p-value: 0.894ANOVA
p-value: 0.425Mixed Models Analysis
Secondary
Emotion Regulation in Older Adults (Behavior)
Emotional intensity ratings, which participants reported during the emotion regulation task inside MRI scanner before and after intervention. The ratings ranged from 1 through 4, and 4 represents strongest intensity.
Time frame: Time 1 (Baseline), Time 2 (5 weeks)
Population: Population analyzed was composed by all randomization subjects who completed pre- and post-intervention assessments and whose data quality was sufficient for data analysis.
| Arm | Measure | Group | Value (MEAN) | Dispersion |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Emotion Regulation in Older Adults (Behavior) | Time 1: up-regulation | 3.117 score on a scale | Standard Error 0.087 |
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Emotion Regulation in Older Adults (Behavior) | Time 2: up-regulation | 3.279 score on a scale | Standard Error 0.069 |
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Emotion Regulation in Older Adults (Behavior) | Time 2: down-regulation | 2.115 score on a scale | Standard Error 0.087 |
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Emotion Regulation in Older Adults (Behavior) | Time 1: viewing | 2.586 score on a scale | Standard Error 0.096 |
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Emotion Regulation in Older Adults (Behavior) | Time 2: viewing | 2.668 score on a scale | Standard Error 0.116 |
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Emotion Regulation in Older Adults (Behavior) | Time 1: down-regulation | 2.059 score on a scale | Standard Error 0.085 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Emotion Regulation in Older Adults (Behavior) | Time 2: up-regulation | 3.155 score on a scale | Standard Error 0.097 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Emotion Regulation in Older Adults (Behavior) | Time 1: down-regulation | 1.973 score on a scale | Standard Error 0.119 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Emotion Regulation in Older Adults (Behavior) | Time 1: viewing | 2.511 score on a scale | Standard Error 0.134 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Emotion Regulation in Older Adults (Behavior) | Time 1: up-regulation | 3.022 score on a scale | Standard Error 0.121 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Emotion Regulation in Older Adults (Behavior) | Time 2: down-regulation | 2.061 score on a scale | Standard Error 0.122 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Emotion Regulation in Older Adults (Behavior) | Time 2: viewing | 2.695 score on a scale | Standard Error 0.162 |
Comparison: time x condition x regulation goal interaction in behavioral emotional intensity rating for older adultsp-value: 0.478ANOVA
Secondary
Emotion Regulation in Younger Adults (Behavior)
Emotional intensity ratings, which participants reported during the emotion regulation task inside MRI scanner before and after intervention. The ratings ranged from 1 through 4, and 4 represents strongest intensity.
Time frame: Time 1 (Baseline), Time 2 (5 weeks)
Population: Population analyzed was composed by all randomization subjects who completed pre- and post-intervention assessments and whose data quality was sufficient for data analysis.
| Arm | Measure | Group | Value (MEAN) | Dispersion |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Emotion Regulation in Younger Adults (Behavior) | Time 1: down-regulation | 1.841 score on a scale | Standard Error 0.08 |
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Emotion Regulation in Younger Adults (Behavior) | Time 1: viewing | 2.073 score on a scale | Standard Error 0.084 |
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Emotion Regulation in Younger Adults (Behavior) | Time 1: up-regulation | 3.141 score on a scale | Standard Error 0.072 |
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Emotion Regulation in Younger Adults (Behavior) | Time 2: down-regulation | 1.861 score on a scale | Standard Error 0.075 |
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Emotion Regulation in Younger Adults (Behavior) | Time 2: viewing | 1.964 score on a scale | Standard Error 0.078 |
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Emotion Regulation in Younger Adults (Behavior) | Time 2: up-regulation | 3.269 score on a scale | Standard Error 0.07 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Emotion Regulation in Younger Adults (Behavior) | Time 2: viewing | 2.427 score on a scale | Standard Error 0.083 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Emotion Regulation in Younger Adults (Behavior) | Time 1: down-regulation | 1.822 score on a scale | Standard Error 0.085 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Emotion Regulation in Younger Adults (Behavior) | Time 2: down-regulation | 1.959 score on a scale | Standard Error 0.08 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Emotion Regulation in Younger Adults (Behavior) | Time 1: viewing | 2.309 score on a scale | Standard Error 0.089 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Emotion Regulation in Younger Adults (Behavior) | Time 2: up-regulation | 3.395 score on a scale | Standard Error 0.074 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Emotion Regulation in Younger Adults (Behavior) | Time 1: up-regulation | 3.271 score on a scale | Standard Error 0.076 |
Comparison: time x condition x regulation goal interaction in behavioral emotional intensity rating for younger adultsp-value: 0.17ANOVA
Secondary
High Frequency (HF) HRV for Older Adults
HRV measured by high frequency (HF) HRV for older adults. HF-HRV was quantified as the spectral power of interbeat interval variability within the high frequency range (typically 0.15-0.40 Hz), which reflects parasympathetic (vagal) activity. In this study, HF-HRV was obtained using photoplethysmography (PPG) methods. During a standardized resting condition, the device continuously recorded interbeat intervals. These data were then processed via spectral analysis to calculate the power in the high frequency band. Measurements are expressed in units of milliseconds squared (ms²). Higher HF-HRV values indicate increased parasympathetic modulation and are generally associated with improved autonomic regulation and better cognitive performance.
Time frame: Time 1 (Baseline), Time 2 (5 weeks)
Population: Population analyzed was composed by all randomization subjects who completed pre- and post-intervention assessments and whose data quality was sufficient for data analysis.
| Arm | Measure | Group | Value (MEAN) | Dispersion |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Younger HRV-increase Group | High Frequency (HF) HRV for Older Adults | Time 1 | 5.56 log transformed power(ms^2) | Standard Deviation 0.89 |
| Younger HRV-increase Group | High Frequency (HF) HRV for Older Adults | Time 2 | 5.78 log transformed power(ms^2) | Standard Deviation 1.04 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | High Frequency (HF) HRV for Older Adults | Time 1 | 5.40 log transformed power(ms^2) | Standard Deviation 1.08 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | High Frequency (HF) HRV for Older Adults | Time 2 | 5.63 log transformed power(ms^2) | Standard Deviation 1.16 |
p-value: 0.99ANOVA
Secondary
High Frequency (HF) HRV for Younger Adults
HRV measured by high frequency (HF) HRV for younger adults. HF-HRV was quantified as the spectral power of interbeat interval variability within the high frequency range (typically 0.15-0.40 Hz), which reflects parasympathetic (vagal) activity. In this study, HF-HRV was obtained using photoplethysmography (PPG) methods. During a standardized resting condition, the device continuously recorded interbeat intervals. These data were then processed via spectral analysis to calculate the power in the high frequency band. Measurements are expressed in units of milliseconds squared (ms²). Higher HF-HRV values indicate increased parasympathetic modulation and are generally associated with improved autonomic regulation and better cognitive performance.
Time frame: Time 1 (Baseline), Time 2 (5 weeks)
Population: Population analyzed was composed by all randomization subjects who completed pre- and post-intervention assessments and whose data quality was sufficient for data analysis.
| Arm | Measure | Group | Value (MEAN) | Dispersion |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Younger HRV-increase Group | High Frequency (HF) HRV for Younger Adults | Time 1 | 6.94 log transformed power(ms^2) | Standard Deviation 1.13 |
| Younger HRV-increase Group | High Frequency (HF) HRV for Younger Adults | Time 2 | 6.63 log transformed power(ms^2) | Standard Deviation 1.01 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | High Frequency (HF) HRV for Younger Adults | Time 1 | 6.77 log transformed power(ms^2) | Standard Deviation 0.76 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | High Frequency (HF) HRV for Younger Adults | Time 2 | 6.62 log transformed power(ms^2) | Standard Deviation 1 |
p-value: 0.463ANOVA
Secondary
Inflammation Measured by C-reactive Protein for Older Adults
Inflammation measured by salivary C-reactive protein (CRP) for older adults
Time frame: Time 1 (Baseline), Time 2 (5 weeks)
Population: Population analyzed was composed by all randomization subjects who completed pre- and post-intervention assessments and whose data quality was sufficient for data analysis.
| Arm | Measure | Group | Value (MEAN) | Dispersion |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Inflammation Measured by C-reactive Protein for Older Adults | Time 1 | 2809.771 CRP level (pg/ml) | Standard Error 1063.422 |
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Inflammation Measured by C-reactive Protein for Older Adults | Time 2 | 1440.859 CRP level (pg/ml) | Standard Error 437.418 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Inflammation Measured by C-reactive Protein for Older Adults | Time 1 | 864.984 CRP level (pg/ml) | Standard Error 1063.422 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Inflammation Measured by C-reactive Protein for Older Adults | Time 2 | 509.761 CRP level (pg/ml) | Standard Error 437.418 |
p-value: 0.402ANOVA
Secondary
Inflammation Measured by C-reactive Protein for Younger Adults
Inflammation measured by salivary C-reactive protein (CRP) for younger adults
Time frame: Time 1 (Baseline), Time 2 (5 weeks)
Population: Population analyzed was composed by all randomization subjects who completed pre- and post-intervention assessments and whose data quality was sufficient for data analysis.
| Arm | Measure | Group | Value (MEAN) | Dispersion |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Inflammation Measured by C-reactive Protein for Younger Adults | Time 1 | 8193.259 CRP level (pg/ml) | Standard Error 3905.21 |
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Inflammation Measured by C-reactive Protein for Younger Adults | Time 2 | 6093.377 CRP level (pg/ml) | Standard Error 3115.766 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Inflammation Measured by C-reactive Protein for Younger Adults | Time 1 | 4069.873 CRP level (pg/ml) | Standard Error 4107.658 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Inflammation Measured by C-reactive Protein for Younger Adults | Time 2 | 3985.363 CRP level (pg/ml) | Standard Error 3277.311 |
p-value: 0.133ANOVA
Secondary
Inflammation Measured by IL-1b Levels for Older Adults
Inflammation measured by salivary IL-1b levels for older adults
Time frame: Time 1 (Baseline), Time 2 (5 weeks)
Population: Population analyzed was composed by all randomization subjects who completed pre- and post-intervention assessments and whose data quality was sufficient for data analysis.
| Arm | Measure | Group | Value (MEAN) | Dispersion |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Inflammation Measured by IL-1b Levels for Older Adults | Time 1 | 218.580 IL-1b level (pg/ml) | Standard Error 73.483 |
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Inflammation Measured by IL-1b Levels for Older Adults | Time 2 | 174.882 IL-1b level (pg/ml) | Standard Error 44.839 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Inflammation Measured by IL-1b Levels for Older Adults | Time 1 | 89.007 IL-1b level (pg/ml) | Standard Error 82.157 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Inflammation Measured by IL-1b Levels for Older Adults | Time 2 | 90.668 IL-1b level (pg/ml) | Standard Error 50.131 |
p-value: 0.6ANOVA
Secondary
Inflammation Measured by IL-1b Levels for Younger Adults
Inflammation measured by salivary IL-1b levels for younger adults
Time frame: Time 1 (Baseline), Time 2 (5 weeks)
Population: Population analyzed was composed by all randomization subjects who completed pre- and post-intervention assessments and whose data quality was sufficient for data analysis.
| Arm | Measure | Group | Value (MEAN) | Dispersion |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Inflammation Measured by IL-1b Levels for Younger Adults | Time 1 | 80.063 IL-1b level (pg/ml) | Standard Error 15.825 |
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Inflammation Measured by IL-1b Levels for Younger Adults | Time 2 | 86.474 IL-1b level (pg/ml) | Standard Error 13.624 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Inflammation Measured by IL-1b Levels for Younger Adults | Time 1 | 91.827 IL-1b level (pg/ml) | Standard Error 16.987 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Inflammation Measured by IL-1b Levels for Younger Adults | Time 2 | 76.446 IL-1b level (pg/ml) | Standard Error 14.624 |
p-value: 0.236ANOVA
Secondary
Inflammation Measured by IL-6 Levels for Older Adults
Inflammation measured by salivary IL-6 levels for older adults
Time frame: Time 1 (Baseline), Time 2 (5 weeks)
Population: Population analyzed was composed by all randomization subjects who completed pre- and post-intervention assessments and whose data quality was sufficient for data analysis.
| Arm | Measure | Group | Value (MEAN) | Dispersion |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Inflammation Measured by IL-6 Levels for Older Adults | Time 2 | 8.260 IL-6 level (pg/ml) | Standard Error 2.108 |
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Inflammation Measured by IL-6 Levels for Older Adults | Time 1 | 10.559 IL-6 level (pg/ml) | Standard Error 4.439 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Inflammation Measured by IL-6 Levels for Older Adults | Time 2 | 4.605 IL-6 level (pg/ml) | Standard Error 2.357 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Inflammation Measured by IL-6 Levels for Older Adults | Time 1 | 7.595 IL-6 level (pg/ml) | Standard Error 4.963 |
p-value: 0.917ANOVA
Secondary
Inflammation Measured by IL-6 Levels for Younger Adults
Inflammation measured by salivary IL-6 levels for younger adults
Time frame: Time 1 (Baseline), Time 2 (5 weeks)
Population: Population analyzed was composed by all randomization subjects who completed pre- and post-intervention assessments and whose data quality was sufficient for data analysis.
| Arm | Measure | Group | Value (MEAN) | Dispersion |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Inflammation Measured by IL-6 Levels for Younger Adults | Time 1 | 4.653 IL-6 level (pg/ml) | Standard Error 0.858 |
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Inflammation Measured by IL-6 Levels for Younger Adults | Time 2 | 4.510 IL-6 level (pg/ml) | Standard Error 0.884 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Inflammation Measured by IL-6 Levels for Younger Adults | Time 1 | 3.571 IL-6 level (pg/ml) | Standard Error 0.921 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Inflammation Measured by IL-6 Levels for Younger Adults | Time 2 | 3.029 IL-6 level (pg/ml) | Standard Error 0.949 |
p-value: 0.788ANOVA
Secondary
Inflammation Measured by IL-8 Levels for Older Adults
Inflammation measured by salivary IL-8 levels for older adults
Time frame: Time 1 (Baseline), Time 2 (5 weeks)
Population: Population analyzed was composed by all randomization subjects who completed pre- and post-intervention assessments and whose data quality was sufficient for data analysis.
| Arm | Measure | Group | Value (MEAN) | Dispersion |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Inflammation Measured by IL-8 Levels for Older Adults | Time 1 | 1440.907 IL-8 level (pg/ml) | Standard Error 270.644 |
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Inflammation Measured by IL-8 Levels for Older Adults | Time 2 | 1343.894 IL-8 level (pg/ml) | Standard Error 273.858 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Inflammation Measured by IL-8 Levels for Older Adults | Time 1 | 656.653 IL-8 level (pg/ml) | Standard Error 302.589 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Inflammation Measured by IL-8 Levels for Older Adults | Time 2 | 698.642 IL-8 level (pg/ml) | Standard Error 306.182 |
p-value: 0.75ANOVA
Secondary
Inflammation Measured by IL-8 Levels for Younger Adults
Inflammation measured by salivary IL-8 levels for younger adults
Time frame: Time 1 (Baseline), Time 2 (5 weeks)
Population: Population analyzed was composed by all randomization subjects who completed pre- and post-intervention assessments and whose data quality was sufficient for data analysis.
| Arm | Measure | Group | Value (MEAN) | Dispersion |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Inflammation Measured by IL-8 Levels for Younger Adults | Time 1 | 513.510 IL-8 level (pg/ml) | Standard Error 89.567 |
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Inflammation Measured by IL-8 Levels for Younger Adults | Time 2 | 448.990 IL-8 level (pg/ml) | Standard Error 60.839 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Inflammation Measured by IL-8 Levels for Younger Adults | Time 1 | 540.543 IL-8 level (pg/ml) | Standard Error 96.14 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Inflammation Measured by IL-8 Levels for Younger Adults | Time 2 | 502.338 IL-8 level (pg/ml) | Standard Error 65.304 |
p-value: 0.844ANOVA
Secondary
Inflammation Measured by TNF-a Levels for Older Adults
Inflammation measured by salivary TNF-a levels for older adults
Time frame: Time 1 (Baseline), Time 2 (5 weeks)
Population: Population analyzed was composed by all randomization subjects who completed pre- and post-intervention assessments and whose data quality was sufficient for data analysis.
| Arm | Measure | Group | Value (MEAN) | Dispersion |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Inflammation Measured by TNF-a Levels for Older Adults | Time 1 | 4.271 TNF-a level (pg/ml) | Standard Error 0.945 |
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Inflammation Measured by TNF-a Levels for Older Adults | Time 2 | 3.887 TNF-a level (pg/ml) | Standard Error 0.985 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Inflammation Measured by TNF-a Levels for Older Adults | Time 1 | 1.607 TNF-a level (pg/ml) | Standard Error 1.056 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Inflammation Measured by TNF-a Levels for Older Adults | Time 2 | 2.338 TNF-a level (pg/ml) | Standard Error 1.101 |
p-value: 0.0505ANOVA
Secondary
Inflammation Measured by TNF-a Levels for Younger Adults
Inflammation measured by salivary TNF-a levels for younger adults
Time frame: Time 1 (Baseline), Time 2 (5 weeks)
Population: Population analyzed was composed by all randomization subjects who completed pre- and post-intervention assessments and whose data quality was sufficient for data analysis.
| Arm | Measure | Group | Value (MEAN) | Dispersion |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Inflammation Measured by TNF-a Levels for Younger Adults | Time 1 | 2.792 TNF-a level (pg/ml) | Standard Error 0.367 |
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Inflammation Measured by TNF-a Levels for Younger Adults | Time 2 | 3.241 TNF-a level (pg/ml) | Standard Error 0.411 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Inflammation Measured by TNF-a Levels for Younger Adults | Time 1 | 2.947 TNF-a level (pg/ml) | Standard Error 0.394 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Inflammation Measured by TNF-a Levels for Younger Adults | Time 2 | 2.202 TNF-a level (pg/ml) | Standard Error 0.441 |
p-value: 0.074ANOVA
Secondary
LC-innervated Subregion Volume in the Hippocampus for Older Adults
LC-innervated subregion volume in the hippocampus at pre- and post-intervention was compared between the HRV-increase and HRV-decrease groups in older adults.
Time frame: Time 1 (Baseline), Time 2 (5 weeks)
| Arm | Measure | Group | Value (MEAN) | Dispersion |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Younger HRV-increase Group | LC-innervated Subregion Volume in the Hippocampus for Older Adults | Time 1 (pre-intervention) | 1095.66 mm^3 | Standard Error 23.58 |
| Younger HRV-increase Group | LC-innervated Subregion Volume in the Hippocampus for Older Adults | Time 2 (post-intervention) | 1106.20 mm^3 | Standard Error 24.18 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | LC-innervated Subregion Volume in the Hippocampus for Older Adults | Time 1 (pre-intervention) | 1126.17 mm^3 | Standard Error 22.62 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | LC-innervated Subregion Volume in the Hippocampus for Older Adults | Time 2 (post-intervention) | 1110.82 mm^3 | Standard Error 22.62 |
Secondary
LC-innervated Subregion Volume in the Hippocampus for Younger Adults
LC-innervated subregion volume in the hippocampus at pre- and post-intervention was compared between the HRV-increase and HRV-decrease groups in younger adults.
Time frame: Time 1 (Baseline), Time 2 (5 weeks)
| Arm | Measure | Group | Value (MEAN) | Dispersion |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Younger HRV-increase Group | LC-innervated Subregion Volume in the Hippocampus for Younger Adults | Time 1 (pre-intervention) | 1177.99 mm^3 | Standard Error 15 |
| Younger HRV-increase Group | LC-innervated Subregion Volume in the Hippocampus for Younger Adults | Time 2 (post-intervention) | 1172.27 mm^3 | Standard Error 15.01 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | LC-innervated Subregion Volume in the Hippocampus for Younger Adults | Time 1 (pre-intervention) | 1142.29 mm^3 | Standard Error 15.32 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | LC-innervated Subregion Volume in the Hippocampus for Younger Adults | Time 2 (post-intervention) | 1142.45 mm^3 | Standard Error 15.33 |
Secondary
Left Amygdala BOLD Activity During Emotion Regulation in Older Adults
We measured percent changes (%) in BOLD activity in the left amygdala region during emotion down-regulation, viewing, and up-regulation before and after intervention. The viewing condition was used as a baseline during the task. The change is represented by %.
Time frame: Time 1 (Baseline), Time 2 (5 weeks)
Population: Population analyzed was composed by all randomization subjects who completed pre- and post-intervention assessments and whose data quality was sufficient for data analysis.
| Arm | Measure | Group | Value (MEAN) | Dispersion |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Left Amygdala BOLD Activity During Emotion Regulation in Older Adults | Time 2: down-regulation | -0.068 Percent changes (%) in BOLD signal | Standard Error 0.037 |
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Left Amygdala BOLD Activity During Emotion Regulation in Older Adults | Time 1: up-regulation | -0.043 Percent changes (%) in BOLD signal | Standard Error 0.052 |
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Left Amygdala BOLD Activity During Emotion Regulation in Older Adults | Time 2: viewing | -0.004 Percent changes (%) in BOLD signal | Standard Error 0.03 |
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Left Amygdala BOLD Activity During Emotion Regulation in Older Adults | Time 1: viewing | -0.092 Percent changes (%) in BOLD signal | Standard Error 0.039 |
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Left Amygdala BOLD Activity During Emotion Regulation in Older Adults | Time 2: up-regulation | -0.013 Percent changes (%) in BOLD signal | Standard Error 0.031 |
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Left Amygdala BOLD Activity During Emotion Regulation in Older Adults | Time 1: down-regulation | -0.069 Percent changes (%) in BOLD signal | Standard Error 0.041 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Left Amygdala BOLD Activity During Emotion Regulation in Older Adults | Time 2: up-regulation | 0.036 Percent changes (%) in BOLD signal | Standard Error 0.032 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Left Amygdala BOLD Activity During Emotion Regulation in Older Adults | Time 1: down-regulation | -0.028 Percent changes (%) in BOLD signal | Standard Error 0.043 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Left Amygdala BOLD Activity During Emotion Regulation in Older Adults | Time 1: up-regulation | 0.067 Percent changes (%) in BOLD signal | Standard Error 0.053 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Left Amygdala BOLD Activity During Emotion Regulation in Older Adults | Time 2: down-regulation | -0.035 Percent changes (%) in BOLD signal | Standard Error 0.038 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Left Amygdala BOLD Activity During Emotion Regulation in Older Adults | Time 2: viewing | -0.013 Percent changes (%) in BOLD signal | Standard Error 0.031 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Left Amygdala BOLD Activity During Emotion Regulation in Older Adults | Time 1: viewing | -0.006 Percent changes (%) in BOLD signal | Standard Error 0.04 |
Comparison: time x condition x regulation goal (2 x 2 x 3) interaction effect in the left amygdala for older adultsp-value: 0.621ANOVA
Secondary
Left Amygdala BOLD Activity During Emotion Regulation in Younger Adults
We measured percent changes (%) in BOLD activity in the left amygdala region during emotion down-regulation, viewing, and up-regulation before and after intervention. The viewing condition was used as a baseline during the task. The change is represented by %.
Time frame: Time 1 (Baseline), Time 2 (5 weeks)
Population: Population analyzed was composed by all randomization subjects who completed pre- and post-intervention assessments and whose data quality was sufficient for data analysis.
| Arm | Measure | Group | Value (MEAN) | Dispersion |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Left Amygdala BOLD Activity During Emotion Regulation in Younger Adults | Time 1: up-regulation | 0.107 Percent changes (%) in BOLD signal | Standard Error 0.026 |
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Left Amygdala BOLD Activity During Emotion Regulation in Younger Adults | Time 2: down-regulation | 0.027 Percent changes (%) in BOLD signal | Standard Error 0.021 |
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Left Amygdala BOLD Activity During Emotion Regulation in Younger Adults | Time 2: viewing | 0.018 Percent changes (%) in BOLD signal | Standard Error 0.019 |
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Left Amygdala BOLD Activity During Emotion Regulation in Younger Adults | Time 1: viewing | 0.029 Percent changes (%) in BOLD signal | Standard Error 0.023 |
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Left Amygdala BOLD Activity During Emotion Regulation in Younger Adults | Time 2: up-regulation | 0.121 Percent changes (%) in BOLD signal | Standard Error 0.027 |
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Left Amygdala BOLD Activity During Emotion Regulation in Younger Adults | Time 1: down-regulation | 0.032 Percent changes (%) in BOLD signal | Standard Error 0.022 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Left Amygdala BOLD Activity During Emotion Regulation in Younger Adults | Time 2: up-regulation | 0.074 Percent changes (%) in BOLD signal | Standard Error 0.029 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Left Amygdala BOLD Activity During Emotion Regulation in Younger Adults | Time 1: down-regulation | 0.024 Percent changes (%) in BOLD signal | Standard Error 0.023 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Left Amygdala BOLD Activity During Emotion Regulation in Younger Adults | Time 1: viewing | 0.048 Percent changes (%) in BOLD signal | Standard Error 0.035 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Left Amygdala BOLD Activity During Emotion Regulation in Younger Adults | Time 2: down-regulation | 0.021 Percent changes (%) in BOLD signal | Standard Error 0.022 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Left Amygdala BOLD Activity During Emotion Regulation in Younger Adults | Time 2: viewing | -0.020 Percent changes (%) in BOLD signal | Standard Error 0.021 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Left Amygdala BOLD Activity During Emotion Regulation in Younger Adults | Time 1: up-regulation | 0.095 Percent changes (%) in BOLD signal | Standard Error 0.028 |
Comparison: time x condition x regulation goal (2 x 2 x 3) interaction effect in the left amygdala for younger adultsp-value: 0.441ANOVA
Secondary
Low Frequency (LF) HRV for Older Adults
HRV measured by low frequency (LF) HRV for older adults. LF-HRV was quantified as the spectral power of interbeat interval variability within the low frequency range (typically 0.04-0.15 Hz), which reflects the combined influences of sympathetic and parasympathetic activity. In this study, LF-HRV was obtained using photoplethysmography (PPG) methods. During a standardized resting condition, the device continuously recorded interbeat intervals. These data were then processed via spectral analysis to calculate the power in the low frequency band. Measurements are expressed in units of milliseconds squared (ms²). Although LF-HRV reflects contributions from both branches of the autonomic nervous system, higher LF-HRV values can indicate enhanced autonomic modulation, with interpretation made in the context of overall autonomic balance.
Time frame: Time 1 (Baseline), Time 2 (5 weeks)
Population: Population analyzed was composed by all randomization subjects who completed pre- and post-intervention assessments and whose data quality was sufficient for data analysis.
| Arm | Measure | Group | Value (MEAN) | Dispersion |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Low Frequency (LF) HRV for Older Adults | Time 1 | 5.66 log transformed power(ms^2) | Standard Deviation 1.19 |
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Low Frequency (LF) HRV for Older Adults | Time 2 | 6.11 log transformed power(ms^2) | Standard Deviation 1.49 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Low Frequency (LF) HRV for Older Adults | Time 1 | 5.14 log transformed power(ms^2) | Standard Deviation 1.39 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Low Frequency (LF) HRV for Older Adults | Time 2 | 5.31 log transformed power(ms^2) | Standard Deviation 1.65 |
p-value: 0.398ANOVA
Secondary
Low Frequency (LF) HRV for Younger Adults
HRV measured by low frequency (LF) HRV for younger adults. LF-HRV was quantified as the spectral power of interbeat interval variability within the low frequency range (typically 0.04-0.15 Hz), which reflects the combined influences of sympathetic and parasympathetic activity. In this study, LF-HRV was obtained using photoplethysmography (PPG) methods. During a standardized resting condition, the device continuously recorded interbeat intervals. These data were then processed via spectral analysis to calculate the power in the low frequency band. Measurements are expressed in units of milliseconds squared (ms²). Although LF-HRV reflects contributions from both branches of the autonomic nervous system, higher LF-HRV values can indicate enhanced autonomic modulation, with interpretation made in the context of overall autonomic balance.
Time frame: Time 1 (Baseline), Time 2 (5 weeks)
Population: Population analyzed was composed by all randomization subjects who completed pre- and post-intervention assessments and whose data quality was sufficient for data analysis.
| Arm | Measure | Group | Value (MEAN) | Dispersion |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Low Frequency (LF) HRV for Younger Adults | Time 1 | 7.25 log transformed power(ms^2) | Standard Deviation 1.03 |
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Low Frequency (LF) HRV for Younger Adults | Time 2 | 7.61 log transformed power(ms^2) | Standard Deviation 1.21 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Low Frequency (LF) HRV for Younger Adults | Time 1 | 6.95 log transformed power(ms^2) | Standard Deviation 0.93 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Low Frequency (LF) HRV for Younger Adults | Time 2 | 6.75 log transformed power(ms^2) | Standard Deviation 1.01 |
p-value: 0.034ANOVA
Secondary
Mood for Older Adults
Emotional well-being measured by the Profile of Mood States (POMS) for older adults. The POMS consists of 40 items that are rated on a 5-point scale ranging from 0=not at all to 4=extremely. Total Mood Disturbance (TMD) was calculated by summing the totals for the negative items and then subtracting the totals for the positive items. A constant (i.e., 100) was added to the TMD formula in order to eliminate negative scores. Higher scores indicate more negative mood states. The scores range from 56 and 216.
Time frame: Time 1 (Baseline), Time 2 (5 weeks)
Population: Population analyzed was composed by all randomization subjects who completed pre- and post-intervention assessments and whose data quality was sufficient for data analysis.
| Arm | Measure | Group | Value (MEAN) | Dispersion |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Mood for Older Adults | Time 1 | 87.167 score on a scale | Standard Deviation 17.435 |
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Mood for Older Adults | Time 2 | 79.852 score on a scale | Standard Deviation 12.44 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Mood for Older Adults | Time 1 | 90.250 score on a scale | Standard Deviation 17.037 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Mood for Older Adults | Time 2 | 87.536 score on a scale | Standard Deviation 18.339 |
p-value: 0.288ANOVA
p-value: 0.191Mixed Models Analysis
Secondary
Mood for Younger Adults
Emotional well-being measured by the Profile of Mood States (POMS) for younger adults. The POMS consists of 40 items that are rated on a 5-point scale ranging from 0=not at all to 4=extremely. Total Mood Disturbance (TMD) was calculated by summing the totals for the negative items and then subtracting the totals for the positive items. A constant (i.e., 100) was added to the TMD formula in order to eliminate negative scores. Higher scores indicate more negative mood states. The scores range from 56 and 216.
Time frame: Time 1 (Baseline), Time 2 (5 weeks)
Population: Population analyzed was composed by all randomization subjects who completed pre- and post-intervention assessments and whose data quality was sufficient for data analysis.
| Arm | Measure | Group | Value (MEAN) | Dispersion |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Mood for Younger Adults | Time 1 | 92.604 score on a scale | Standard Deviation 14.27 |
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Mood for Younger Adults | Time 2 | 89.726 score on a scale | Standard Deviation 18.71 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Mood for Younger Adults | Time 1 | 93.560 score on a scale | Standard Deviation 18.307 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Mood for Younger Adults | Time 2 | 86.540 score on a scale | Standard Deviation 18.967 |
p-value: 0.144ANOVA
p-value: 0.653Mixed Models Analysis
Secondary
mPFC-left Amygdala Resting-state Functional Connectivity for Older Adults (ANOVA)
The strength of resting-state functional connectivity was measured by correlation coefficients. Values represent the correlation of BOLD time-series between mPFC and the left amygdala. Higher values indicate greater connectivity.
Time frame: Time 1 (Baseline), Time 2 (5 weeks)
Population: Population analyzed was composed by all randomization subjects who completed pre- and post-intervention assessments and whose data quality was sufficient for data analysis.
| Arm | Measure | Group | Value (MEAN) | Dispersion |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Younger HRV-increase Group | mPFC-left Amygdala Resting-state Functional Connectivity for Older Adults (ANOVA) | Time 1 | 0.200 correlation coefficients | Standard Error 0.05 |
| Younger HRV-increase Group | mPFC-left Amygdala Resting-state Functional Connectivity for Older Adults (ANOVA) | Time 2 | 0.202 correlation coefficients | Standard Error 0.048 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | mPFC-left Amygdala Resting-state Functional Connectivity for Older Adults (ANOVA) | Time 1 | 0.079 correlation coefficients | Standard Error 0.051 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | mPFC-left Amygdala Resting-state Functional Connectivity for Older Adults (ANOVA) | Time 2 | 0.153 correlation coefficients | Standard Error 0.049 |
Comparison: A 2 (time: pre, post) X 2 (condition: HRV-increase, HRV-decrease) ANOVA was performed.p-value: 0.455ANOVA
Secondary
mPFC-left Amygdala Resting-state Functional Connectivity for Older Adults (Post-Pre)
The strength of resting-state functional connectivity between mPFC and the left amygdala was measured by correlation coefficients. The difference in functional connectivity between the two time points (Time 2 - Time 1) was calculated. Higher values indicate greater connectivity at Time 2 than Time 1 (or post- than pre-intervention).
Time frame: Time 1 (Baseline), Time 2 (5 weeks)
Population: Population analyzed was composed by all randomization subjects who completed pre- and post-intervention assessments and whose data quality was sufficient for data analysis.
| Arm | Measure | Value (MEAN) | Dispersion |
|---|---|---|---|
| Younger HRV-increase Group | mPFC-left Amygdala Resting-state Functional Connectivity for Older Adults (Post-Pre) | 0.002 correlation coefficients | Standard Error 0.08 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | mPFC-left Amygdala Resting-state Functional Connectivity for Older Adults (Post-Pre) | 0.074 correlation coefficients | Standard Error 0.051 |
Comparison: An independent t-test was performed to compare the two groups.p-value: 0.455t-test, 2 sided
Secondary
mPFC-left Amygdala Resting-state Functional Connectivity for Younger Adults (ANOVA)
The strength of resting-state functional connectivity was measured by correlation coefficients. Values represent the correlation of BOLD time-series between mPFC and the left amygdala. Higher values indicate greater connectivity.
Time frame: Time 1 (Baseline), Time 2 (5 weeks)
Population: Population analyzed was composed by all randomization subjects who completed pre- and post-intervention assessments and whose data quality was sufficient for data analysis.
| Arm | Measure | Group | Value (MEAN) | Dispersion |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Younger HRV-increase Group | mPFC-left Amygdala Resting-state Functional Connectivity for Younger Adults (ANOVA) | Time 1 | 0.076 correlation coefficients | Standard Error 0.021 |
| Younger HRV-increase Group | mPFC-left Amygdala Resting-state Functional Connectivity for Younger Adults (ANOVA) | Time 2 | 0.168 correlation coefficients | Standard Error 0.021 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | mPFC-left Amygdala Resting-state Functional Connectivity for Younger Adults (ANOVA) | Time 1 | 0.089 correlation coefficients | Standard Error 0.022 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | mPFC-left Amygdala Resting-state Functional Connectivity for Younger Adults (ANOVA) | Time 2 | 0.072 correlation coefficients | Standard Error 0.021 |
Comparison: A 2 (time: pre, post) X 2 (condition: HRV-increase, HRV-decrease) ANOVA was performed.p-value: 0.022ANOVA
Secondary
mPFC-left Amygdala Resting-state Functional Connectivity for Younger Adults (Post-Pre)
The strength of resting-state functional connectivity between mPFC and the left amygdala was measured by correlation coefficients. The difference in functional connectivity between the two time points (Time 2 - Time 1) was calculated. Higher values indicate greater connectivity at Time 2 than Time 1 (or post- than pre-intervention).
Time frame: Time 1 (Baseline), Time 2 (5 weeks)
Population: Population analyzed was composed by all randomization subjects who completed pre- and post-intervention assessments and whose data quality was sufficient for data analysis.
| Arm | Measure | Value (MEAN) | Dispersion |
|---|---|---|---|
| Younger HRV-increase Group | mPFC-left Amygdala Resting-state Functional Connectivity for Younger Adults (Post-Pre) | 0.093 correlation coefficients | Standard Error 0.04 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | mPFC-left Amygdala Resting-state Functional Connectivity for Younger Adults (Post-Pre) | -0.018 correlation coefficients | Standard Error 0.025 |
Comparison: An independent t-test was performed to compare the two groups.p-value: 0.022t-test, 2 sided
Secondary
Plasma Amyloid Beta 40 (Aβ40) for Older Adults
Plasma Aβ40 levels at pre- and post-intervention were compared between HRV-increase and HRV-decrease group for older adults.
Time frame: Time 1 (Baseline), Time 2 (5 weeks)
| Arm | Measure | Group | Value (MEAN) | Dispersion |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Plasma Amyloid Beta 40 (Aβ40) for Older Adults | Time 2 (post-intervention) | 189.95 pg/ml | Standard Error 12.76 |
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Plasma Amyloid Beta 40 (Aβ40) for Older Adults | Time 1 (pre-intervention) | 198.02 pg/ml | Standard Error 9.15 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Plasma Amyloid Beta 40 (Aβ40) for Older Adults | Time 2 (post-intervention) | 227.99 pg/ml | Standard Error 19.85 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Plasma Amyloid Beta 40 (Aβ40) for Older Adults | Time 1 (pre-intervention) | 211.76 pg/ml | Standard Error 23.47 |
Secondary
Plasma Amyloid Beta 40 (Aβ40) for Younger Adults
Plasma Aβ40 levels at pre- and post-intervention were compared between HRV-increase and HRV-decrease group for younger adults.
Time frame: Time 1 (Baseline), Time 2 (5 weeks)
| Arm | Measure | Group | Value (MEAN) | Dispersion |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Plasma Amyloid Beta 40 (Aβ40) for Younger Adults | Time 1 (pre-intervention) | 166.95 pg/ml | Standard Error 7.58 |
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Plasma Amyloid Beta 40 (Aβ40) for Younger Adults | Time 2 (post-intervention) | 150.25 pg/ml | Standard Error 7.16 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Plasma Amyloid Beta 40 (Aβ40) for Younger Adults | Time 1 (pre-intervention) | 151.75 pg/ml | Standard Error 4.95 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Plasma Amyloid Beta 40 (Aβ40) for Younger Adults | Time 2 (post-intervention) | 172.16 pg/ml | Standard Error 7.87 |
Secondary
Plasma Amyloid Beta 42 (Aβ42) for Older Adults
Plasma Aβ42 levels at pre- and post-intervention were compared between HRV-increase and HRV-decrease group for older adults.
Time frame: Time 1 (Baseline), Time 2 (5 weeks)
| Arm | Measure | Group | Value (MEAN) | Dispersion |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Plasma Amyloid Beta 42 (Aβ42) for Older Adults | Time 1 (pre-intervention) | 10.78 pg/ml | Standard Error 0.58 |
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Plasma Amyloid Beta 42 (Aβ42) for Older Adults | Time 2 (post-intervention) | 10.94 pg/ml | Standard Error 0.62 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Plasma Amyloid Beta 42 (Aβ42) for Older Adults | Time 1 (pre-intervention) | 10.54 pg/ml | Standard Error 0.75 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Plasma Amyloid Beta 42 (Aβ42) for Older Adults | Time 2 (post-intervention) | 11.80 pg/ml | Standard Error 0.55 |
Secondary
Plasma Amyloid Beta 42 (Aβ42) Younger Adults
Plasma Aβ42 levels at pre- and post-intervention were compared between HRV-increase and HRV-decrease group for younger adults.
Time frame: Time 1 (Baseline), Time 2 (5 weeks)
| Arm | Measure | Group | Value (MEAN) | Dispersion |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Plasma Amyloid Beta 42 (Aβ42) Younger Adults | Time 1 (pre-intervention) | 9.77 pg/ml | Standard Error 0.43 |
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Plasma Amyloid Beta 42 (Aβ42) Younger Adults | Time 2 (post-intervention) | 8.85 pg/ml | Standard Error 0.46 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Plasma Amyloid Beta 42 (Aβ42) Younger Adults | Time 1 (pre-intervention) | 9.26 pg/ml | Standard Error 0.47 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Plasma Amyloid Beta 42 (Aβ42) Younger Adults | Time 2 (post-intervention) | 10.84 pg/ml | Standard Error 0.74 |
Secondary
Plasma Phosphorylated Tau 181 (pTau) for Older Adults
Plasma pTau levels at pre- and post-intervention were compared between HRV-increase and HRV-decrease group for older adults.
Time frame: Time 1 (Baseline), Time 2 (5 weeks)
| Arm | Measure | Group | Value (MEAN) | Dispersion |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Plasma Phosphorylated Tau 181 (pTau) for Older Adults | Time 1 (pre-intervention) | 2.55 pg/ml | Standard Error 0.22 |
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Plasma Phosphorylated Tau 181 (pTau) for Older Adults | Time 2 (post-intervention) | 2.64 pg/ml | Standard Error 0.31 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Plasma Phosphorylated Tau 181 (pTau) for Older Adults | Time 1 (pre-intervention) | 2.94 pg/ml | Standard Error 0.36 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Plasma Phosphorylated Tau 181 (pTau) for Older Adults | Time 2 (post-intervention) | 2.29 pg/ml | Standard Error 0.26 |
Secondary
Plasma Phosphorylated Tau 181 (pTau) for Younger Adults
Plasma pTau levels at pre- and post-intervention were reported for HRV-increase and HRV-decrease group for younger adults.
Time frame: Time 1 (Baseline), Time 2 (5 weeks)
| Arm | Measure | Group | Value (MEAN) | Dispersion |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Plasma Phosphorylated Tau 181 (pTau) for Younger Adults | Time 1 (pre-intervention) | 1.57 pg/ml | Standard Error 0.12 |
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Plasma Phosphorylated Tau 181 (pTau) for Younger Adults | Time 2 (post-intervention) | 1.63 pg/ml | Standard Error 0.12 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Plasma Phosphorylated Tau 181 (pTau) for Younger Adults | Time 1 (pre-intervention) | 1.57 pg/ml | Standard Error 0.14 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Plasma Phosphorylated Tau 181 (pTau) for Younger Adults | Time 2 (post-intervention) | 1.66 pg/ml | Standard Error 0.15 |
Secondary
Plasma Total Tau (tTau) for Older Adults
Plasma tTau levels at pre- and post-intervention were compared between HRV-increase and HRV-decrease group for older adults.
Time frame: Time 1 (Baseline), Time 2 (5 weeks)
| Arm | Measure | Group | Value (MEAN) | Dispersion |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Plasma Total Tau (tTau) for Older Adults | Time 1 (pre-intervention) | 1.91 pg/ml | Standard Error 0.12 |
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Plasma Total Tau (tTau) for Older Adults | Time 2 (post-intervention) | 2.17 pg/ml | Standard Error 0.22 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Plasma Total Tau (tTau) for Older Adults | Time 1 (pre-intervention) | 2.07 pg/ml | Standard Error 0.17 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Plasma Total Tau (tTau) for Older Adults | Time 2 (post-intervention) | 2.13 pg/ml | Standard Error 0.12 |
Secondary
Plasma Total Tau (tTau) for Younger Adults
Plasma tTau levels at pre- and post-intervention were reported for HRV-increase and HRV-decrease group for younger adults.
Time frame: Time 1 (Baseline), Time 2 (5 weeks)
| Arm | Measure | Group | Value (MEAN) | Dispersion |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Plasma Total Tau (tTau) for Younger Adults | Time 2 (post-intervention) | 1.87 pg/ml | Standard Error 0.12 |
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Plasma Total Tau (tTau) for Younger Adults | Time 1 (pre-intervention) | 2.13 pg/ml | Standard Error 0.14 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Plasma Total Tau (tTau) for Younger Adults | Time 1 (pre-intervention) | 2.11 pg/ml | Standard Error 0.16 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Plasma Total Tau (tTau) for Younger Adults | Time 2 (post-intervention) | 2.55 pg/ml | Standard Error 0.2 |
Secondary
Right Amygdala BOLD Activity During Emotion Regulation in Older Adults
We measured percent changes (%) in BOLD activity in the right amygdala region during emotion down-regulation, viewing, and up-regulation before and after intervention. The viewing condition was used as a baseline during the task. The change is represented by %.
Time frame: Time 1 (Baseline), Time 2 (5 weeks)
Population: Population analyzed was composed by all randomization subjects who completed pre- and post-intervention assessments and whose data quality was sufficient for data analysis.
| Arm | Measure | Group | Value (MEAN) | Dispersion |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Right Amygdala BOLD Activity During Emotion Regulation in Older Adults | Time 2: viewing | -0.005 Percent changes (%) in BOLD signal | Standard Error 0.027 |
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Right Amygdala BOLD Activity During Emotion Regulation in Older Adults | Time 1: viewing | 0.005 Percent changes (%) in BOLD signal | Standard Error 0.029 |
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Right Amygdala BOLD Activity During Emotion Regulation in Older Adults | Time 2: up-regulation | 0.006 Percent changes (%) in BOLD signal | Standard Error 0.038 |
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Right Amygdala BOLD Activity During Emotion Regulation in Older Adults | Time 1: up-regulation | 0.041 Percent changes (%) in BOLD signal | Standard Error 0.045 |
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Right Amygdala BOLD Activity During Emotion Regulation in Older Adults | Time 1: down-regulation | -0.058 Percent changes (%) in BOLD signal | Standard Error 0.052 |
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Right Amygdala BOLD Activity During Emotion Regulation in Older Adults | Time 2: down-regulation | -0.038 Percent changes (%) in BOLD signal | Standard Error 0.031 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Right Amygdala BOLD Activity During Emotion Regulation in Older Adults | Time 2: up-regulation | 0.024 Percent changes (%) in BOLD signal | Standard Error 0.039 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Right Amygdala BOLD Activity During Emotion Regulation in Older Adults | Time 2: down-regulation | -0.004 Percent changes (%) in BOLD signal | Standard Error 0.032 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Right Amygdala BOLD Activity During Emotion Regulation in Older Adults | Time 2: viewing | 0.001 Percent changes (%) in BOLD signal | Standard Error 0.027 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Right Amygdala BOLD Activity During Emotion Regulation in Older Adults | Time 1: down-regulation | -0.014 Percent changes (%) in BOLD signal | Standard Error 0.053 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Right Amygdala BOLD Activity During Emotion Regulation in Older Adults | Time 1: viewing | -0.027 Percent changes (%) in BOLD signal | Standard Error 0.03 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Right Amygdala BOLD Activity During Emotion Regulation in Older Adults | Time 1: up-regulation | 0.062 Percent changes (%) in BOLD signal | Standard Error 0.047 |
Comparison: time x condition x regulation goal (2 x 2 x 3) interaction effect in the right amygdala activity for older adultsp-value: 0.864ANOVA
Secondary
Right Amygdala BOLD Activity During Emotion Regulation in Younger Adults
We measured percent changes (%) in BOLD activity in the right amygdala region during emotion down-regulation, viewing, and up-regulation before and after intervention. The viewing condition was used as a baseline during the task. The change is represented by %.
Time frame: Time 1 (Baseline), Time 2 (5 weeks)
Population: Population analyzed was composed by all randomization subjects who completed pre- and post-intervention assessments and whose data quality was sufficient for data analysis.
| Arm | Measure | Group | Value (MEAN) | Dispersion |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Right Amygdala BOLD Activity During Emotion Regulation in Younger Adults | Time 2: up-regulation | 0.106 Percent changes (%) in BOLD signal | Standard Error 0.025 |
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Right Amygdala BOLD Activity During Emotion Regulation in Younger Adults | Time 1: down-regulation | 0.019 Percent changes (%) in BOLD signal | Standard Error 0.021 |
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Right Amygdala BOLD Activity During Emotion Regulation in Younger Adults | Time 1: viewing | 0.032 Percent changes (%) in BOLD signal | Standard Error 0.021 |
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Right Amygdala BOLD Activity During Emotion Regulation in Younger Adults | Time 1: up-regulation | 0.054 Percent changes (%) in BOLD signal | Standard Error 0.024 |
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Right Amygdala BOLD Activity During Emotion Regulation in Younger Adults | Time 2: down-regulation | 0.076 Percent changes (%) in BOLD signal | Standard Error 0.026 |
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Right Amygdala BOLD Activity During Emotion Regulation in Younger Adults | Time 2: viewing | 0.073 Percent changes (%) in BOLD signal | Standard Error 0.027 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Right Amygdala BOLD Activity During Emotion Regulation in Younger Adults | Time 2: down-regulation | 0.017 Percent changes (%) in BOLD signal | Standard Error 0.028 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Right Amygdala BOLD Activity During Emotion Regulation in Younger Adults | Time 2: up-regulation | 0.068 Percent changes (%) in BOLD signal | Standard Error 0.027 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Right Amygdala BOLD Activity During Emotion Regulation in Younger Adults | Time 1: up-regulation | 0.074 Percent changes (%) in BOLD signal | Standard Error 0.025 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Right Amygdala BOLD Activity During Emotion Regulation in Younger Adults | Time 1: down-regulation | 0.018 Percent changes (%) in BOLD signal | Standard Error 0.023 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Right Amygdala BOLD Activity During Emotion Regulation in Younger Adults | Time 2: viewing | -0.003 Percent changes (%) in BOLD signal | Standard Error 0.029 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Right Amygdala BOLD Activity During Emotion Regulation in Younger Adults | Time 1: viewing | 0.039 Percent changes (%) in BOLD signal | Standard Error 0.022 |
Comparison: time x condition x regulation goal (2 x 2 x 3) interaction effect in the right amygdala activity for younger adultsp-value: 0.19ANOVA
Secondary
State Anxiety for Older Adults
Emotional well-being measured by the State Anxiety Inventory (SAI) for older adults. The SAI consists of 20 items that are rated on a 4-point scale as follows: 1) not at all, 2) somewhat, 3) moderately so, and 4) very much so. Scores range from 20 to 80, with higher scores indicating greater state anxiety.
Time frame: Time 1 (Baseline), Time 2 (5 weeks)
Population: Population analyzed was composed by all randomization subjects who completed pre- and post-intervention assessments and whose data quality was sufficient for data analysis.
| Arm | Measure | Group | Value (MEAN) | Dispersion |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Younger HRV-increase Group | State Anxiety for Older Adults | Time 1 | 31.786 score on a scale | Standard Deviation 8.741 |
| Younger HRV-increase Group | State Anxiety for Older Adults | Time 2 | 30.143 score on a scale | Standard Deviation 7.966 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | State Anxiety for Older Adults | Time 1 | 33.889 score on a scale | Standard Deviation 11.078 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | State Anxiety for Older Adults | Time 2 | 33.963 score on a scale | Standard Deviation 10.082 |
p-value: 0.481ANOVA
p-value: 0.159Mixed Models Analysis
Secondary
State Anxiety for Younger Adults
Emotional well-being measured by the State Anxiety Inventory (SAI) for younger adults. The SAI consists of 20 items that are rated on a 4-point scale as follows: 1) not at all, 2) somewhat, 3) moderately so, and 4) very much so. Scores range from 20 to 80, with higher scores indicating greater state anxiety.
Time frame: Time 1 (Baseline), Time 2 (5 weeks)
Population: Population analyzed was composed by all randomization subjects who completed pre- and post-intervention assessments and whose data quality was sufficient for data analysis.
| Arm | Measure | Group | Value (MEAN) | Dispersion |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Younger HRV-increase Group | State Anxiety for Younger Adults | Time 1 | 38.566 score on a scale | Standard Deviation 10.233 |
| Younger HRV-increase Group | State Anxiety for Younger Adults | Time 2 | 37.972 score on a scale | Standard Deviation 10.511 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | State Anxiety for Younger Adults | Time 2 | 36.347 score on a scale | Standard Deviation 11.816 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | State Anxiety for Younger Adults | Time 1 | 38.122 score on a scale | Standard Deviation 11.245 |
p-value: 0.462ANOVA
p-value: 0.468Mixed Models Analysis
Secondary
Stress Reactivity (Breathing Rate) for Older Adults
Difference in stress reactivity elicited by standard cognitive tasks, as assessed by change in breathing rate from rest to cognitive tasks
Time frame: Time 1 (Baseline), Time 2 (5 weeks)
Population: Population analyzed was composed by all randomization subjects who completed pre- and post-intervention assessments and whose data quality was sufficient for data analysis.
| Arm | Measure | Group | Value (MEAN) | Dispersion |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Stress Reactivity (Breathing Rate) for Older Adults | Time 1 | 4.287 breaths per minute | Standard Deviation 2.342 |
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Stress Reactivity (Breathing Rate) for Older Adults | Time 2 | 3.975 breaths per minute | Standard Deviation 4.122 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Stress Reactivity (Breathing Rate) for Older Adults | Time 1 | 3.975 breaths per minute | Standard Deviation 3.986 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Stress Reactivity (Breathing Rate) for Older Adults | Time 2 | 3.895 breaths per minute | Standard Deviation 3.59 |
p-value: 0.885ANOVA
Secondary
Stress Reactivity (Breathing Rate) for Younger Adults
Difference in stress reactivity elicited by standard cognitive tasks, as assessed by change in breathing rate from rest to cognitive tasks
Time frame: Time 1 (Baseline), Time 2 (5 weeks)
Population: Population analyzed was composed by all randomization subjects who completed pre- and post-intervention assessments and whose data quality was sufficient for data analysis.
| Arm | Measure | Group | Value (MEAN) | Dispersion |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Stress Reactivity (Breathing Rate) for Younger Adults | Time 1 | 3.437 breaths per minute | Standard Deviation 3.096 |
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Stress Reactivity (Breathing Rate) for Younger Adults | Time 2 | 4.381 breaths per minute | Standard Deviation 4.082 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Stress Reactivity (Breathing Rate) for Younger Adults | Time 1 | 3.367 breaths per minute | Standard Deviation 2.509 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Stress Reactivity (Breathing Rate) for Younger Adults | Time 2 | 2.235 breaths per minute | Standard Deviation 2.023 |
p-value: 0.011ANOVA
Secondary
Stress Reactivity (Heart Rate) for Older Adults
Difference in stress reactivity elicited by standard cognitive tasks, as assessed by change in heart rate from cognitive tasks to recovery rest
Time frame: Time 1 (Baseline), Time 2 (5 weeks)
Population: Population analyzed was composed by all randomization subjects who completed pre- and post-intervention assessments and whose data quality was sufficient for data analysis.
| Arm | Measure | Group | Value (MEAN) | Dispersion |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Stress Reactivity (Heart Rate) for Older Adults | Time 1 | 3.991 beats per minute | Standard Deviation 3.987 |
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Stress Reactivity (Heart Rate) for Older Adults | Time 2 | 2.731 beats per minute | Standard Deviation 2.977 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Stress Reactivity (Heart Rate) for Older Adults | Time 1 | 3.555 beats per minute | Standard Deviation 2.138 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Stress Reactivity (Heart Rate) for Older Adults | Time 2 | 1.951 beats per minute | Standard Deviation 3.099 |
p-value: 0.751ANOVA
Secondary
Stress Reactivity (Heart Rate) for Younger Adults
Difference in stress reactivity elicited by standard cognitive tasks, as assessed by change in heart rate from rest to cognitive tasks
Time frame: Time 1 (Baseline), Time 2 (5 weeks)
Population: Population analyzed was composed by all randomization subjects who completed pre- and post-intervention assessments and whose data quality was sufficient for data analysis.
| Arm | Measure | Group | Value (MEAN) | Dispersion |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Stress Reactivity (Heart Rate) for Younger Adults | Time 1 | 4.270 beats per minute | Standard Deviation 5.168 |
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Stress Reactivity (Heart Rate) for Younger Adults | Time 2 | 2.060 beats per minute | Standard Deviation 3.776 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Stress Reactivity (Heart Rate) for Younger Adults | Time 1 | 3.969 beats per minute | Standard Deviation 5.085 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Stress Reactivity (Heart Rate) for Younger Adults | Time 2 | 2.951 beats per minute | Standard Deviation 4.242 |
p-value: 0.325ANOVA
Secondary
Stress Reactivity (Systolic Blood Pressure) for Older Adults
Difference in stress reactivity elicited by standard cognitive tasks, as assessed by change in systolic blood pressure from rest to cognitive tasks
Time frame: Time 1 (Baseline), Time 2 (5 weeks)
Population: Population analyzed was composed by all randomization subjects who completed pre- and post-intervention assessments and whose data quality was sufficient for data analysis.
| Arm | Measure | Group | Value (MEAN) | Dispersion |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Stress Reactivity (Systolic Blood Pressure) for Older Adults | Time 1 | 6.303 mmHg | Standard Deviation 12.349 |
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Stress Reactivity (Systolic Blood Pressure) for Older Adults | Time 2 | 6.553 mmHg | Standard Deviation 12.311 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Stress Reactivity (Systolic Blood Pressure) for Older Adults | Time 1 | 6.196 mmHg | Standard Deviation 12.727 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Stress Reactivity (Systolic Blood Pressure) for Older Adults | Time 2 | 0.043 mmHg | Standard Deviation 11.351 |
p-value: 0.176ANOVA
Secondary
Stress Reactivity (Systolic Blood Pressure) for Younger Adults
Difference in stress reactivity elicited by standard cognitive tasks, as assessed by change in systolic blood pressure from rest to cognitive tasks
Time frame: Time 1 (Baseline), Time 2 (5 weeks)
Population: Population analyzed was composed by all randomization subjects who completed pre- and post-intervention assessments and whose data quality was sufficient for data analysis.
| Arm | Measure | Group | Value (MEAN) | Dispersion |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Stress Reactivity (Systolic Blood Pressure) for Younger Adults | Time 1 | 3.090 mmHg | Standard Deviation 10.659 |
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Stress Reactivity (Systolic Blood Pressure) for Younger Adults | Time 2 | -0.729 mmHg | Standard Deviation 8.402 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Stress Reactivity (Systolic Blood Pressure) for Younger Adults | Time 1 | 1.424 mmHg | Standard Deviation 8.867 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Stress Reactivity (Systolic Blood Pressure) for Younger Adults | Time 2 | 1.812 mmHg | Standard Deviation 7.864 |
p-value: 0.083ANOVA
Secondary
Stress Recovery (Breathing Rate) for Older Adults
Difference in stress recovery elicited by standard cognitive tasks, as assessed by change in breathing rate from cognitive tasks to recovery rest
Time frame: Time 1 (Baseline), Time 2 (5 weeks)
Population: Population analyzed was composed by all randomization subjects who completed pre- and post-intervention assessments and whose data quality was sufficient for data analysis.
| Arm | Measure | Group | Value (MEAN) | Dispersion |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Stress Recovery (Breathing Rate) for Older Adults | Time 1 | -3.935 breaths per minute | Standard Deviation 2.487 |
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Stress Recovery (Breathing Rate) for Older Adults | Time 2 | -4.046 breaths per minute | Standard Deviation 4.169 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Stress Recovery (Breathing Rate) for Older Adults | Time 1 | -3.194 breaths per minute | Standard Deviation 3.589 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Stress Recovery (Breathing Rate) for Older Adults | Time 2 | -3.864 breaths per minute | Standard Deviation 4.262 |
p-value: 0.74ANOVA
Secondary
Stress Recovery (Breathing Rate) for Younger Adults
Difference in stress recovery elicited by standard cognitive tasks, as assessed by change in breathing rate from cognitive tasks to recovery rest
Time frame: Time 1 (Baseline), Time 2 (5 weeks)
Population: Population analyzed was composed by all randomization subjects who completed pre- and post-intervention assessments and whose data quality was sufficient for data analysis.
| Arm | Measure | Group | Value (MEAN) | Dispersion |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Stress Recovery (Breathing Rate) for Younger Adults | Time 1 | -3.555 breaths per minute | Standard Deviation 3.121 |
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Stress Recovery (Breathing Rate) for Younger Adults | Time 2 | -4.722 breaths per minute | Standard Deviation 4.07 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Stress Recovery (Breathing Rate) for Younger Adults | Time 1 | -4.134 breaths per minute | Standard Deviation 3.097 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Stress Recovery (Breathing Rate) for Younger Adults | Time 2 | -1.563 breaths per minute | Standard Deviation 2.533 |
p-value: <0.001ANOVA
Secondary
Stress Recovery (Heart Rate) for Older Adults
Difference in stress recovery elicited by standard cognitive tasks, as assessed by change in heart rate from cognitive tasks to recovery rest
Time frame: Time 1 (Baseline), Time 2 (5 weeks)
Population: Population analyzed was composed by all randomization subjects who completed pre- and post-intervention assessments and whose data quality was sufficient for data analysis.
| Arm | Measure | Group | Value (MEAN) | Dispersion |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Stress Recovery (Heart Rate) for Older Adults | Time 1 | -3.921 beats per minute | Standard Deviation 4.76 |
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Stress Recovery (Heart Rate) for Older Adults | Time 2 | -2.716 beats per minute | Standard Deviation 2.921 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Stress Recovery (Heart Rate) for Older Adults | Time 1 | -2.188 beats per minute | Standard Deviation 2.111 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Stress Recovery (Heart Rate) for Older Adults | Time 2 | -1.267 beats per minute | Standard Deviation 2.894 |
p-value: 0.807ANOVA
Secondary
Stress Recovery (Heart Rate) for Younger Adults
Difference in stress recovery elicited by standard cognitive tasks, as assessed by change in heart rate from cognitive tasks to recovery rest
Time frame: Time 1 (Baseline), Time 2 (5 weeks)
Population: Population analyzed was composed by all randomization subjects who completed pre- and post-intervention assessments and whose data quality was sufficient for data analysis.
| Arm | Measure | Group | Value (MEAN) | Dispersion |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Stress Recovery (Heart Rate) for Younger Adults | Time 1 | -3.851 beats per minute | Standard Deviation 6.585 |
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Stress Recovery (Heart Rate) for Younger Adults | Time 2 | -2.302 beats per minute | Standard Deviation 4.658 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Stress Recovery (Heart Rate) for Younger Adults | Time 1 | -1.870 beats per minute | Standard Deviation 4.133 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Stress Recovery (Heart Rate) for Younger Adults | Time 2 | -1.486 beats per minute | Standard Deviation 3.734 |
p-value: 0.285ANOVA
Secondary
Stress Recovery (Systolic Blood Pressure) for Older Adults
Difference in stress recovery elicited by standard cognitive tasks, as assessed by change in systolic blood pressure from cognitive tasks to recovery rest
Time frame: Time 1 (Baseline), Time 2 (5 weeks)
Population: Population analyzed was composed by all randomization subjects who completed pre- and post-intervention assessments and whose data quality was sufficient for data analysis.
| Arm | Measure | Group | Value (MEAN) | Dispersion |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Stress Recovery (Systolic Blood Pressure) for Older Adults | Time 1 | -6.464 mmHg | Standard Deviation 19.15 |
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Stress Recovery (Systolic Blood Pressure) for Older Adults | Time 2 | -4.592 mmHg | Standard Deviation 17.651 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Stress Recovery (Systolic Blood Pressure) for Older Adults | Time 1 | -6.650 mmHg | Standard Deviation 6.06 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Stress Recovery (Systolic Blood Pressure) for Older Adults | Time 2 | -4.380 mmHg | Standard Deviation 7.402 |
p-value: 0.944ANOVA
Secondary
Stress Recovery (Systolic Blood Pressure) for Younger Adults
Difference in stress recovery elicited by standard cognitive tasks, as assessed by change in systolic blood pressure from cognitive tasks to recovery rest
Time frame: Time 1 (Baseline), Time 2 (5 weeks)
Population: Population analyzed was composed by all randomization subjects who completed pre- and post-intervention assessments and whose data quality was sufficient for data analysis.
| Arm | Measure | Group | Value (MEAN) | Dispersion |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Stress Recovery (Systolic Blood Pressure) for Younger Adults | Time 1 | -2.993 mmHg | Standard Deviation 8.176 |
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Stress Recovery (Systolic Blood Pressure) for Younger Adults | Time 2 | -1.973 mmHg | Standard Deviation 6.728 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Stress Recovery (Systolic Blood Pressure) for Younger Adults | Time 1 | -3.253 mmHg | Standard Deviation 6.465 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Stress Recovery (Systolic Blood Pressure) for Younger Adults | Time 2 | -0.702 mmHg | Standard Deviation 10.165 |
p-value: 0.516ANOVA
Secondary
The Root Mean Squared Successive Differences (RMSSD) HRV for Older Adults
HRV measured by the root mean square of successive differences (RMSSD) for older adults. RMSSD (Root Mean Square of Successive Differences) is a time-domain measure that quantifies the variability between successive interbeat intervals, primarily reflecting parasympathetic (vagal) activity. In this study, RMSSD was obtained using photoplethysmography (PPG) methods. During a standardized resting condition, the device continuously recorded interbeat intervals, and RMSSD was computed as the square root of the mean of the squared differences between consecutive interbeat intervals. Measurements are expressed in milliseconds (ms). Higher RMSSD values indicate increased parasympathetic modulation, generally associated with improved autonomic regulation and better cardiovascular and cognitive performance.
Time frame: Time 1 (Baseline), Time 2 (5 weeks)
Population: Population analyzed was composed by all randomization subjects who completed pre- and post-intervention assessments and whose data quality was sufficient for data analysis.
| Arm | Measure | Group | Value (MEAN) | Dispersion |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Younger HRV-increase Group | The Root Mean Squared Successive Differences (RMSSD) HRV for Older Adults | Time 2 | 42.17 millisecond | Standard Deviation 26.05 |
| Younger HRV-increase Group | The Root Mean Squared Successive Differences (RMSSD) HRV for Older Adults | Time 1 | 33.99 millisecond | Standard Deviation 16.87 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | The Root Mean Squared Successive Differences (RMSSD) HRV for Older Adults | Time 1 | 33.39 millisecond | Standard Deviation 15.07 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | The Root Mean Squared Successive Differences (RMSSD) HRV for Older Adults | Time 2 | 39.09 millisecond | Standard Deviation 20.55 |
p-value: 0.637ANOVA
Secondary
The Root Mean Squared Successive Differences (RMSSD) HRV for Younger Adults
HRV measured by the root mean square of successive differences (RMSSD) for younger adults. RMSSD (Root Mean Square of Successive Differences) is a time-domain measure that quantifies the variability between successive interbeat intervals, primarily reflecting parasympathetic (vagal) activity. In this study, RMSSD was obtained using photoplethysmography (PPG) methods. During a standardized resting condition, the device continuously recorded interbeat intervals, and RMSSD was computed as the square root of the mean of the squared differences between consecutive interbeat intervals. Measurements are expressed in milliseconds (ms). Higher RMSSD values indicate increased parasympathetic modulation, generally associated with improved autonomic regulation and better cardiovascular and cognitive performance.
Time frame: Time 1 (Baseline), Time 2 (5 weeks)
Population: Population analyzed was composed by all randomization subjects who completed pre- and post-intervention assessments and whose data quality was sufficient for data analysis.
| Arm | Measure | Group | Value (MEAN) | Dispersion |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Younger HRV-increase Group | The Root Mean Squared Successive Differences (RMSSD) HRV for Younger Adults | Time 1 | 68.99 millisecond | Standard Deviation 40.74 |
| Younger HRV-increase Group | The Root Mean Squared Successive Differences (RMSSD) HRV for Younger Adults | Time 2 | 60.99 millisecond | Standard Deviation 28.36 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | The Root Mean Squared Successive Differences (RMSSD) HRV for Younger Adults | Time 1 | 56.78 millisecond | Standard Deviation 20.81 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | The Root Mean Squared Successive Differences (RMSSD) HRV for Younger Adults | Time 2 | 61.78 millisecond | Standard Deviation 42.66 |
p-value: 0.113ANOVA
Secondary
Trait Anxiety for Older Adults
Emotional well-being measured by the Trait Anxiety Inventory (TAI) for older adults. The TAI consists of 20 items that are rated on a 4-point scale as follows: 1) not at all, 2) somewhat, 3) moderately so, and 4) very much so. Scores range from 20 to 80, with higher scores indicating greater trait anxiety.
Time frame: Time 1 (Baseline), Time 2 (5 weeks)
Population: Population analyzed was composed by all randomization subjects who completed pre- and post-intervention assessments and whose data quality was sufficient for data analysis.
| Arm | Measure | Group | Value (MEAN) | Dispersion |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Trait Anxiety for Older Adults | Time 1 | 33.821 score on a scale | Standard Deviation 11.039 |
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Trait Anxiety for Older Adults | Time 2 | 31.929 score on a scale | Standard Deviation 9.071 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Trait Anxiety for Older Adults | Time 1 | 38.815 score on a scale | Standard Deviation 12.83 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Trait Anxiety for Older Adults | Time 2 | 36.093 score on a scale | Standard Deviation 10.517 |
p-value: 0.697ANOVA
p-value: 0.901Mixed Models Analysis
Secondary
Trait Anxiety for Younger Adults
Emotional well-being measured by the Trait Anxiety Inventory (TAI) for younger adults. The TAI consists of 20 items that are rated on a 4-point scale as follows: 1) not at all, 2) somewhat, 3) moderately so, and 4) very much so. Scores range from 20 to 80, with higher scores indicating greater trait anxiety.
Time frame: Time 1 (Baseline), Time 2 (5 weeks)
Population: Population analyzed was composed by all randomization subjects who completed pre- and post-intervention assessments and whose data quality was sufficient for data analysis.
| Arm | Measure | Group | Value (MEAN) | Dispersion |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Trait Anxiety for Younger Adults | Time 1 | 42.473 score on a scale | Standard Deviation 9.933 |
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Trait Anxiety for Younger Adults | Time 2 | 38.909 score on a scale | Standard Deviation 9.487 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Trait Anxiety for Younger Adults | Time 1 | 41.306 score on a scale | Standard Deviation 12.582 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Trait Anxiety for Younger Adults | Time 2 | 38.510 score on a scale | Standard Deviation 10.679 |
p-value: 0.602ANOVA
p-value: 0.562Mixed Models Analysis
Other Pre-specified
Inhibitory Control and Attention for Older Adults
Inhibitory control performance measured by NIH Toolbox Flanker Inhibitory Control and Attention Test (Flanker). The standard score is calculated to have a normative mean of 100 and a standard deviation (SD) of 15. Scores range from 59 to 140, with higher scores indicating better Inhibitory Control and Attention.
Time frame: Time 1 (Baseline), Time 2 (5 weeks)
Population: Population analyzed was composed by all randomization subjects who completed pre- and post-intervention assessments and whose data quality was sufficient for data analysis.
| Arm | Measure | Group | Value (MEAN) | Dispersion |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Inhibitory Control and Attention for Older Adults | Time 1 | 90.84 age corrected standard score | Standard Deviation 8.91 |
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Inhibitory Control and Attention for Older Adults | Time 2 | 93.29 age corrected standard score | Standard Deviation 8.76 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Inhibitory Control and Attention for Older Adults | Time 1 | 89.82 age corrected standard score | Standard Deviation 11.17 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Inhibitory Control and Attention for Older Adults | Time 2 | 92.04 age corrected standard score | Standard Deviation 13.44 |
p-value: 0.905ANOVA
Other Pre-specified
Inhibitory Control and Attention for Younger Adults
Inhibitory control performance measured by NIH Toolbox Flanker Inhibitory Control and Attention Test (Flanker). The standard score is calculated to have a normative mean of 100 and a standard deviation (SD) of 15. Scores range from 59 to 140, with higher scores indicating better Inhibitory Control and Attention.
Time frame: Time 1 (Baseline), Time 2 (5 weeks)
Population: Population analyzed was composed by all randomization subjects who completed pre- and post-intervention assessments and whose data quality was sufficient for data analysis.
| Arm | Measure | Group | Value (MEAN) | Dispersion |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Inhibitory Control and Attention for Younger Adults | Time 1 | 87.27 age corrected standard score | Standard Deviation 14.29 |
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Inhibitory Control and Attention for Younger Adults | Time 2 | 89.21 age corrected standard score | Standard Deviation 15.03 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Inhibitory Control and Attention for Younger Adults | Time 1 | 84.90 age corrected standard score | Standard Deviation 12.17 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Inhibitory Control and Attention for Younger Adults | Time 2 | 88.71 age corrected standard score | Standard Deviation 11.96 |
p-value: 0.292ANOVA
Other Pre-specified
Processing Speed for Older Adults
Processing speed performance measured by NIH Toolbox Pattern Comparison Processing Speed Test (PCPS). The standard score is calculated to have a normative mean of 100 and a standard deviation (SD) of 15. Scores range from 59 to 140, with higher scores indicating faster processing speed.
Time frame: Time 1 (Baseline), Time 2 (5 weeks)
Population: Population analyzed was composed by all randomization subjects who completed pre- and post-intervention assessments and whose data quality was sufficient for data analysis.
| Arm | Measure | Group | Value (MEAN) | Dispersion |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Processing Speed for Older Adults | Time 1 | 106.55 age corrected standard score | Standard Deviation 21.1 |
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Processing Speed for Older Adults | Time 2 | 107.68 age corrected standard score | Standard Deviation 25.53 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Processing Speed for Older Adults | Time 1 | 98.54 age corrected standard score | Standard Deviation 20.96 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Processing Speed for Older Adults | Time 2 | 105.43 age corrected standard score | Standard Deviation 17.57 |
p-value: 0.141ANOVA
Other Pre-specified
Processing Speed for Younger Adults
Processing speed performance measured by NIH Toolbox Pattern Comparison Processing Speed Test (PCPS). The standard score is calculated to have a normative mean of 100 and a standard deviation (SD) of 15. Scores range from 59 to 140, with higher scores indicating faster processing speed.
Time frame: Time 1 (Baseline), Time 2 (5 weeks)
Population: Population analyzed was composed by all randomization subjects who completed pre- and post-intervention assessments and whose data quality was sufficient for data analysis.
| Arm | Measure | Group | Value (MEAN) | Dispersion |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Processing Speed for Younger Adults | Time 1 | 102.64 age corrected standard score | Standard Deviation 22.69 |
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Processing Speed for Younger Adults | Time 2 | 116.30 age corrected standard score | Standard Deviation 17.72 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Processing Speed for Younger Adults | Time 1 | 105.55 age corrected standard score | Standard Deviation 18.53 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Processing Speed for Younger Adults | Time 2 | 118.51 age corrected standard score | Standard Deviation 16.08 |
p-value: 0.804ANOVA
Other Pre-specified
Recall Memory for Older Adults
Average proportion of previously presented images that were correctly recalled by older adults
Time frame: Week 5 Lab Visit (after about 2.5-3 weeks of training)
Population: Population analyzed was composed by all randomization subjects who completed the memory tests and whose data quality was sufficient for data analysis.
| Arm | Measure | Group | Value (MEAN) | Dispersion |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Recall Memory for Older Adults | Positive | .203 Proportion of items correctly recalled | Standard Error 0.03 |
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Recall Memory for Older Adults | Negative | .225 Proportion of items correctly recalled | Standard Error 0.036 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Recall Memory for Older Adults | Positive | .156 Proportion of items correctly recalled | Standard Error 0.025 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Recall Memory for Older Adults | Negative | .286 Proportion of items correctly recalled | Standard Error 0.04 |
Comparison: Group difference for recall for older adultsp-value: 0.117ANOVA
Other Pre-specified
Recall Memory for Younger Adults
Average proportion of previously presented images that were correctly recalled by younger adults
Time frame: Week 5 Lab Visit (after about 2.5-3 weeks of training)
Population: Population analyzed was composed by all randomization subjects who completed the memory tests and whose data quality was sufficient for data analysis.
| Arm | Measure | Group | Value (MEAN) | Dispersion |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Recall Memory for Younger Adults | Positive | .285 Proportion of items correctly recalled | Standard Error 0.023 |
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Recall Memory for Younger Adults | Negative | .248 Proportion of items correctly recalled | Standard Error 0.02 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Recall Memory for Younger Adults | Positive | .214 Proportion of items correctly recalled | Standard Error 0.023 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Recall Memory for Younger Adults | Negative | .262 Proportion of items correctly recalled | Standard Error 0.027 |
Comparison: Group difference for recall for younger adultsp-value: 0.067ANOVA
Other Pre-specified
Recognition Memory for Older Adults (False Alarm)
Recognition memory performance based on average proportion of images not previously presented that were incorrectly identified as seen (i.e., False Alarms) by older adults
Time frame: Week 5 Lab Visit (after about 2.5-3 weeks of training)
Population: Population analyzed was composed by all randomization subjects who completed the memory tests and whose data quality was sufficient for data analysis.
| Arm | Measure | Group | Value (MEAN) | Dispersion |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Recognition Memory for Older Adults (False Alarm) | Neutral | .091 Proportion of false alarms | Standard Error 0.017 |
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Recognition Memory for Older Adults (False Alarm) | Positive | .093 Proportion of false alarms | Standard Error 0.018 |
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Recognition Memory for Older Adults (False Alarm) | Negative | .069 Proportion of false alarms | Standard Error 0.012 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Recognition Memory for Older Adults (False Alarm) | Neutral | .047 Proportion of false alarms | Standard Error 0.011 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Recognition Memory for Older Adults (False Alarm) | Positive | .062 Proportion of false alarms | Standard Error 0.011 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Recognition Memory for Older Adults (False Alarm) | Negative | .052 Proportion of false alarms | Standard Error 0.011 |
Comparison: False alarms during recognition task for older adultsp-value: 0.257ANOVA
Other Pre-specified
Recognition Memory for Older Adults (Hits)
Recognition memory performance based on average proportion of previously presented images that were correctly identified (i.e., hits) by older adults
Time frame: Week 5 Lab Visit (after about 2.5-3 weeks of training)
Population: Population analyzed was composed by all randomization subjects who completed the memory tests and whose data quality was sufficient for data analysis.
| Arm | Measure | Group | Value (MEAN) | Dispersion |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Recognition Memory for Older Adults (Hits) | Neutral | .828 Proportion of correct hits | Standard Error 0.02 |
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Recognition Memory for Older Adults (Hits) | Positive | .820 Proportion of correct hits | Standard Error 0.022 |
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Recognition Memory for Older Adults (Hits) | Negative | .875 Proportion of correct hits | Standard Error 0.017 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Recognition Memory for Older Adults (Hits) | Neutral | .859 Proportion of correct hits | Standard Error 0.015 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Recognition Memory for Older Adults (Hits) | Positive | .851 Proportion of correct hits | Standard Error 0.016 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Recognition Memory for Older Adults (Hits) | Negative | .870 Proportion of correct hits | Standard Error 0.014 |
Comparison: Hits during recognition task for older adultsp-value: 0.27ANOVA
Other Pre-specified
Recognition Memory for Younger Adults (False Alarm)
Recognition memory performance based on average proportion of images not previously presented that were incorrectly identified as seen (i.e., False Alarms) by younger adults
Time frame: Week 5 Lab Visit (after about 2.5-3 weeks of training)
Population: Population analyzed was composed by all randomization subjects who completed the memory tests and whose data quality was sufficient for data analysis.
| Arm | Measure | Group | Value (MEAN) | Dispersion |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Recognition Memory for Younger Adults (False Alarm) | Neutral | .048 Proportion of false alarm | Standard Error 0.007 |
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Recognition Memory for Younger Adults (False Alarm) | Positive | .044 Proportion of false alarm | Standard Error 0.008 |
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Recognition Memory for Younger Adults (False Alarm) | Negative | .027 Proportion of false alarm | Standard Error 0.005 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Recognition Memory for Younger Adults (False Alarm) | Neutral | .042 Proportion of false alarm | Standard Error 0.006 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Recognition Memory for Younger Adults (False Alarm) | Positive | .046 Proportion of false alarm | Standard Error 0.008 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Recognition Memory for Younger Adults (False Alarm) | Negative | .041 Proportion of false alarm | Standard Error 0.007 |
Comparison: False alarms during recognition task for younger adultsp-value: 0.102ANOVA
Other Pre-specified
Recognition Memory for Younger Adults (Hits)
Recognition memory performance based on average proportion of previously presented images that were correctly identified (i.e., hits) by younger adults
Time frame: Week 5 Lab Visit (after about 2.5-3 weeks of training)
Population: Population analyzed was composed by all randomization subjects who completed the memory tests and whose data quality was sufficient for data analysis.
| Arm | Measure | Group | Value (MEAN) | Dispersion |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Recognition Memory for Younger Adults (Hits) | Positive | .886 Proportion of correct hits | Standard Error 0.012 |
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Recognition Memory for Younger Adults (Hits) | Neutral | .880 Proportion of correct hits | Standard Error 0.014 |
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Recognition Memory for Younger Adults (Hits) | Negative | .914 Proportion of correct hits | Standard Error 0.011 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Recognition Memory for Younger Adults (Hits) | Neutral | .873 Proportion of correct hits | Standard Error 0.013 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Recognition Memory for Younger Adults (Hits) | Positive | .866 Proportion of correct hits | Standard Error 0.011 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Recognition Memory for Younger Adults (Hits) | Negative | .900 Proportion of correct hits | Standard Error 0.012 |
Comparison: Hits during recognition task for younger adultsp-value: 0.695ANOVA
Other Pre-specified
Stress Measured by Cortisol Levels for Younger Adults
Stress measured by salivary cortisol levels for younger adults
Time frame: Time 1 (Baseline), Time 2 (5 weeks)
Population: Population analyzed was composed by all randomization subjects who completed pre- and post-intervention assessments and whose data quality was sufficient for data analysis.
| Arm | Measure | Group | Value (MEAN) | Dispersion |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Stress Measured by Cortisol Levels for Younger Adults | Time 1: cortisol level at awakening | 0.231 CAR level (µg/dL) | Standard Error 0.023 |
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Stress Measured by Cortisol Levels for Younger Adults | Time 1: cortisol level at 30 min after awakening | 0.431 CAR level (µg/dL) | Standard Error 0.035 |
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Stress Measured by Cortisol Levels for Younger Adults | Time 2: cortisol level at awakening | 0.284 CAR level (µg/dL) | Standard Error 0.033 |
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Stress Measured by Cortisol Levels for Younger Adults | Time 2: cortisol level at 30 min after awakening | 0.478 CAR level (µg/dL) | Standard Error 0.045 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Stress Measured by Cortisol Levels for Younger Adults | Time 2: cortisol level at 30 min after awakening | 0.472 CAR level (µg/dL) | Standard Error 0.048 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Stress Measured by Cortisol Levels for Younger Adults | Time 1: cortisol level at awakening | 0.248 CAR level (µg/dL) | Standard Error 0.024 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Stress Measured by Cortisol Levels for Younger Adults | Time 2: cortisol level at awakening | 0.309 CAR level (µg/dL) | Standard Error 0.035 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Stress Measured by Cortisol Levels for Younger Adults | Time 1: cortisol level at 30 min after awakening | 0.453 CAR level (µg/dL) | Standard Error 0.037 |
Comparison: time x condition x collection interaction in cortisol levels for younger adultsp-value: 0.558ANOVA
Other Pre-specified
Sustained Attention for Older Adults
Sustained attention performance was measured by Sustained Attention to Response Test (SART). A commission error was calculated as the number of button press for 25 no-go trials, and an omission error was calculated as the number of no button press for 200 go trials in older adults. The number of errors range from 0 to 25 for commission errors and from 0 to 200 for omission errors. A higher number of omission and commission errors indicates worse sustained attention performance.
Time frame: Time 1 (Baseline), Time 2 (5 weeks)
Population: Population analyzed was composed by all randomization subjects who completed pre- and post-intervention assessments and whose data quality was sufficient for data analysis.
| Arm | Measure | Group | Value (MEAN) | Dispersion |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Sustained Attention for Older Adults | Time 1: commission error | 9.538 number of errors | Standard Error 1.172 |
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Sustained Attention for Older Adults | Time 2: commission error | 8.692 number of errors | Standard Error 1.152 |
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Sustained Attention for Older Adults | Time 1: omission error | 3.731 number of errors | Standard Error 1.187 |
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Sustained Attention for Older Adults | Time 2: omission error | 1.731 number of errors | Standard Error 0.765 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Sustained Attention for Older Adults | Time 2: omission error | 2.842 number of errors | Standard Error 0.894 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Sustained Attention for Older Adults | Time 1: commission error | 9.211 number of errors | Standard Error 1.371 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Sustained Attention for Older Adults | Time 1: omission error | 4.947 number of errors | Standard Error 1.389 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Sustained Attention for Older Adults | Time 2: commission error | 8.789 number of errors | Standard Error 1.347 |
Comparison: time x condition x error type interaction in Sustained Attention to Response Task (SART) for older adultsp-value: 0.813ANOVA
Other Pre-specified
Sustained Attention for Younger Adults
Sustained attention performance was measured by Sustained Attention to Response Test (SART). A commission error was calculated as the number of button press for 25 no-go trials, and an omission error was calculated as the number of no button press for 200 go trials in younger adults. The number of errors range from 0 to 25 for commission errors and from 0 to 200 for omission errors. A higher number of omission and commission errors indicates worse sustained attention performance.
Time frame: Time 1 (Baseline), Time 2 (5 weeks)
Population: Population analyzed was composed by all randomization subjects who completed pre- and post-intervention assessments and whose data quality was sufficient for data analysis.
| Arm | Measure | Group | Value (MEAN) | Dispersion |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Sustained Attention for Younger Adults | Time 1: commission error | 12.679 number of errors | Standard Error 0.936 |
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Sustained Attention for Younger Adults | Time 2: commission error | 9.830 number of errors | Standard Error 1.041 |
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Sustained Attention for Younger Adults | Time 2: omission error | 1.792 number of errors | Standard Error 0.541 |
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Sustained Attention for Younger Adults | Time 1: omission error | 1.906 number of errors | Standard Error 0.592 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Sustained Attention for Younger Adults | Time 2: omission error | 2.383 number of errors | Standard Error 0.574 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Sustained Attention for Younger Adults | Time 1: commission error | 12.979 number of errors | Standard Error 0.994 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Sustained Attention for Younger Adults | Time 2: commission error | 9.851 number of errors | Standard Error 1.106 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Sustained Attention for Younger Adults | Time 1: omission error | 3.383 number of errors | Standard Error 0.628 |
Comparison: time x condition x error type interaction in Sustained Attention to Response Task (SART) for younger adultsp-value: 0.641ANOVA
Other Pre-specified
Working Memory for Older Adults
Working memory performance measured by NIH Toolbox List Sorting Working Memory Test (LSWM). The standard score is calculated to have a normative mean of 100 and a standard deviation (SD) of 15. Scores range from 59 to 140, with higher scores indicating better Working memory.
Time frame: Time 1 (Baseline), Time 2 (5 weeks)
Population: Population analyzed was composed by all randomization subjects who completed pre- and post-intervention assessments and whose data quality was sufficient for data analysis.
| Arm | Measure | Group | Value (MEAN) | Dispersion |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Working Memory for Older Adults | Time 1 | 102.48 age corrected standard score | Standard Deviation 14.82 |
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Working Memory for Older Adults | Time 2 | 103.06 age corrected standard score | Standard Deviation 13.95 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Working Memory for Older Adults | Time 1 | 101.29 age corrected standard score | Standard Deviation 14.14 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Working Memory for Older Adults | Time 2 | 104.82 age corrected standard score | Standard Deviation 11.16 |
p-value: 0.305ANOVA
Other Pre-specified
Working Memory for Younger Adults
Working memory performance measured by NIH Toolbox List Sorting Working Memory Test (LSWM). The standard score is calculated to have a normative mean of 100 and a standard deviation (SD) of 15. Scores range from 59 to 140, with higher scores indicating better Working memory.
Time frame: Time 1 (Baseline), Time 2 (5 weeks)
Population: Population analyzed was composed by all randomization subjects who completed pre- and post-intervention assessments and whose data quality was sufficient for data analysis.
| Arm | Measure | Group | Value (MEAN) | Dispersion |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Working Memory for Younger Adults | Time 1 | 98.39 age corrected standard score | Standard Deviation 10.35 |
| Younger HRV-increase Group | Working Memory for Younger Adults | Time 2 | 105.13 age corrected standard score | Standard Deviation 10.39 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Working Memory for Younger Adults | Time 1 | 98.04 age corrected standard score | Standard Deviation 14 |
| Younger HRV-decrease Group | Working Memory for Younger Adults | Time 2 | 103.10 age corrected standard score | Standard Deviation 12.21 |
p-value: 0.462ANOVA