Behavioral Research, Behavior Therapy, Executive Function, Schools
Conditions
Keywords
Executive Function, Behavioral Research, Cost Analysis, Students, Schools, Randomized Controlled Trial, Behavior Therapy, Skills Training
Brief summary
The purpose of this study was to evaluate the Organizational Skills Training Program - Tier 2 version (OST-T2) in a cluster randomized trial. Participating schools will be randomly assigned to one of two groups: 1) an OST-T2 intervention group and 2) a treatment as usual control group. Participating students (3rd through 5th grade) were from 22 schools in Pennsylvania and New Jersey and included both urban and suburban schools serving a diverse population. OST-T2 is a small-group, skills training intervention for children, which includes parent and teacher consultation to support student use of new skills. The program is delivered by school staff who receive training and consultation from intervention experts.
Detailed description
Context: Although multiple factors influence school functioning, executive function (EF) deficits have been found to be a key predictor of academic achievement. EF is a higher order cognitive ability associated with persistent goal-directed behavior. Organization, time management, and planning (OTMP) skills are aspects of EF that are particularly associated with children's academic performance. Organizational demands increase over the course of early schooling and are relatively high by 3rd through 5th grade. Poor OTMP skills during this period adversely impact academic functioning. In the late elementary school grades, as students are expected to become more organized, some students have difficulty learning these skills in spite of classroom supports provided by teachers, placing them at increased risk for academic failure. Objectives: The purpose of this study was to conduct an evaluation of the Organizational Skills Training Program - Tier 2 version (OST-T2), a fully developed intervention for students in general education. The proposed study builds upon research demonstrating the efficacy of a clinic-based version of the OST intervention (OST-C) in remediating OTMP skills deficits and improving academic functioning for 3rd, 4th and 5th graders with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), and a recent pilot research demonstrating the feasibility and potential effectiveness of a school-based version of OST provided by end users (school partners) for 3rd through 5th graders. It also builds upon research training school staff to implement evidence-based interventions with high fidelity. Study Design: This is a cluster-randomized trial with a treatment as usual (TAU) control group. Setting/Participants: Schools (22) were located in Pennsylvania and New Jersey and include urban and suburban schools serving a diverse population. Students (3rd to 5th grade) who are struggling the most with OTMP deficits and whose academic performance is negatively impacted by their OTMP deficits will be referred to the study team by their general education teachers. Study Interventions and Measures: OST-T2 is a small group skills training intervention, with parents and teachers supporting children's use of new skills. The program manual includes strategies for training and coaching school staff, referred to as school partners, to effectively implement OST-T2 and guidelines to modify the program for implementation in diverse schools with diverse students. Each student session includes: (a) homework review to assess completion of between-session skills implementation; (b) skill-building activities, which include the use of modeling, shaping, guided practice, and reinforcement for organized behavior; and (c) activities to promote generalization of skills. Sessions address four organizational challenges: (a) tracking assignments, (b) managing materials, (c) managing time, and (d) planning for long term assignments. Investigators measured the following: intervention fidelity, stakeholder engagement, student OTMP skills, student academic self-efficacy, student academic outcomes, student characteristics, feasibility, usability, and acceptability of OST-T2. In addition, investigators tracked the interventions that are offered as treatment-as-usual in TAU schools. A cost analysis related to the implementation of OST-T2 will also be completed.
Interventions
BEHAVIORALOrganizational Skills Training - Tier 2 (OST-T2)
OST-T2 is a small group skills training intervention, with parents and teachers supporting children's use of new skills. The program manual includes strategies for training and coaching school staff, referred to as school partners, to effectively implement OST-T2 and guidelines to modify the program for implementation in diverse schools with diverse students. Each student session includes: (a) homework review to assess completion of between-session skills implementation; (b) skill-building activities, which include the use of modeling, shaping, guided practice, and reinforcement for organized behavior; and (c) activities to promote generalization of skills. Sessions address four organizational challenges: (a) tracking assignments, (b) managing materials, (c) managing time, and (d) planning for long term assignments.
Sponsors
University of Pennsylvania
New York University
U.S. Department of Education
Children's Hospital of Philadelphia
Study design
Allocation
RANDOMIZED
Intervention model
PARALLEL
Primary purpose
TREATMENT
Masking
SINGLE (Outcomes Assessor)
Eligibility
Sex/Gender
ALL
Healthy volunteers
No
Inclusion criteria
Any student enrolled in grades 3 through 5 in one of the participating schools who meets the following criteria. 1. First, students will be recommended by their general education teacher if the following are true: (a) students who are struggling the most with OTMP skills, (b) whose OTMP skill deficits are the students' primary concern (c) whose academic performance is negatively impacted by their OTMP deficits, and (d) who have at least one parent who speaks English. 2. Second, students must have or be at risk for developing OTMP deficits.
Exclusion criteria
1. Students will be excluded if they are in a pull-out special education classroom for more than 50% of the day as the organizational demands for these students may differ from those students placed mostly in general education. 2. Students with a one-to-one aide will be excluded because the presence of an aide substantially alters how an organizational intervention is implemented. 3. Students from families in which both caregivers do not speak English will be excluded because the program has not yet been developed for non-English speakers. 4. Only one student per family will be included in the study.
Design outcomes
Primary
| Measure | Time frame | Description |
|---|---|---|
| Students' Organizational Functioning - Teacher Report | Baseline, 14-weeks (post-treatment), 5-months and 12-months | The Children's Organizational Skills Scales - Teacher Version (COSS-T) was used to assess changes in OTMP functioning at home and school over several time points. COSS total scores have good discriminant validity and are sensitive to treatment effects. Each COSS version uses a 4-point rating scale (1=Hardly ever or never to 4=Just about all of the time). Higher scores indicate a worse outcome. Although the COSS yields three subscale scores, only the total score of 28 items was used to reduce the number of measures in the analyses. The mean item score was calculated and used in analyses; possible range is from 1 to 4. |
| Students' Organizational Functioning - Parent Report | Baseline, 14-weeks (post-treatment), 5-months and 12-months | The Children's Organizational Skills Scales - Parent Version (COSS-P) was used to assess changes in OTMP functioning at home and school over several time points. COSS total scores have good discriminant validity and are sensitive to treatment effects. Each COSS version uses a 4-point rating scale (1=Hardly ever or never to 4=Just about all of the time). Higher scores indicate a worse outcome. Although the COSS yields three subscale scores, only the 26-item total score was used to reduce the number of measures in the analyses. The mean item score was calculated and used in analyses; possible range is from 1 to 4. |
Secondary
| Measure | Time frame | Description |
|---|---|---|
| Student Academic Proficiency | Baseline, 14-weeks (post-treatment), 5-months and 12-months | The Academic Proficiency Scale (APS) is a teacher-report measure that assesses (changes in) proficiency in six academic subjects relative to standard expectations (1=Well below standard expected at this time of year; 3=At standard; 5=Well above standard). Higher scores indicate a better outcome. Ratings were averaged across six academic subjects; mean item score is the unit of analysis. Possible range is from 1 to 5. Reliability is acceptable (alpha = .84), and this measure is sensitive to OST treatment effects. |
| Student Academic Competence | Baseline, 14-weeks (post-treatment), 5-months and 12-months | The Academic Competence Evaluation Scales (ACES) is a teacher-report scale that assesses changes in the academic competence of students in kindergarten through grade 12. The Reading/Language Arts and Math subscales of this measure were used. Items are rated from 1 = far below to 5 = far above grade level. Higher scores indicate better outcome. Alpha coefficients and test-retest correlations for these subscales have been shown to be above .90. The average item score for Reading/Language Arts (11 items) and Math (8 items) subscales were calculated. Then the average of these subscale scores was used in the analyses. Possible range is from 1 to 5. |
| Students' Homework Performance - Teacher Report | Baseline, 14-weeks (post-treatment), 5-months and 12-months | The Homework Performance Questionnaire (HPQ-T)-Teacher version was used to assess changes in students' homework behavior during the past 4 weeks. Each item is rated on a five-point scale corresponding to amount of time student demonstrated the behavior in the previous 4-week period (0 = 0% to 39% of the time; 1 = 40% to 69% of the time; 2 = 70% to 79% of the time; 3 = 80% to 89% of the time; 4 = 90% to 100% of the time).Higher scores indicate better outcome. The 9-item Student Self-Regulation factor was used in the analyses. This factor has been demonstrated to have strong psychometric properties. Mean item score was used in analyses; possible range is from 0 to 4. |
| Student Self-efficacy | Baseline, 14-weeks (post-treatment), 5-months and 12-months | Patterns of Adaptive Learning Scales (PALS) was used to evaluate changes in students' perceptions of their ability to overcome challenges to perform their class work (e.g., I can do even the hardest work in this class if I try.). Items are rated on a 5-item scale from 1 = not at all true to 5 = very true. Higher scores indicate better outcomes. Mean item scores were used in analyses; possible range is from 1 to 5. |
| Student Academic Grades | Baseline, 5-months | Student report card grades for the first marking period of the year students participate in OST-T2/TAU and for the last marking period of the academic year of participation were used to examine impact on academic performance. Grades were harmonized across participating school districts to a uniform grading scale (ranging from low of 1 to high of 4). A composite academic grade score was computed for each student based on their grades in math and reading/language arts (possible range = 1 to 4). Higher scores indicate better outcomes. |
| Students' Homework Performance - Parent Report | Baseline, 14-weeks (post-treatment), 5-months and 12-months | The Homework Problem Checklist (HPC) is a 20-item parent-report measure that was used to assess changes in student homework performance. Parents indicate the frequency with which student engage in behavior during homework time at home on a four-point scale (0 = never to 3 = very often). The psychometric properties of this instrument have been shown to be acceptable, and the HPC was sensitive to treatment effects in the previous OST-C study. The total HPC score was used in the analyses. Higher scores indicate worse outcomes. Mean item score was calculated and used in analyses; possible range is from 0 to 3. |
Countries
United States
Participant flow
Recruitment details
Participants were recruited from Nov., 2017 through Jan., 2022 from 22 schools serving students in upper elementary school in the Philadelphia, PA region.
Pre-assignment details
Data from 186 student participants were evaluated for this study. Data were derived from parents, teachers, and child self-report. One participant of the 186 was withdrawn prior to the intervention period because this student was found not to meet study eligibility criteria.
Participants by arm
| Arm | Count |
|---|---|
| OST-T2 Intervention Group Small group skills training for students in grades 3 through 5 with difficulties with organization, time management, and planning skills. Includes parent and teacher involvement to support student skills use.
Organizational Skills Training - Tier 2 (OST-T2): OST-T2 is a small group skills training intervention, with parents and teachers supporting children's use of new skills. The program manual includes strategies for training and coaching school staff, referred to as school partners, to effectively implement OST-T2 and guidelines to modify the program for implementation in diverse schools with diverse students. Each student session includes: (a) homework review to assess completion of between-session skills implementation; (b) skill-building activities, which include the use of modeling, shaping, guided practice, and reinforcement for organized behavior; and (c) activities to promote generalization of skills. Sessions address four organizational challenges: (a) tracking assignments, (b) managing materials, (c) managing time, and (d) planning for long term assignments. | 97 |
| Treatment as Usual Control Group Strategies currently in use by schools to address organization, time management, and planning skills problems. | 88 |
| Total | 185 |
Withdrawals & dropouts
| Period | Reason | FG000 | FG001 |
|---|---|---|---|
| Overall Study | Lost to Follow-up | 2 | 2 |
| Overall Study | PI withdrawal | 1 | 0 |
Baseline characteristics
| Characteristic | Total | OST-T2 Intervention Group | Treatment as Usual Control Group |
|---|---|---|---|
| Age, Continuous | 9.7 Child Age in Years STANDARD_DEVIATION 0.88 | 9.8 Child Age in Years STANDARD_DEVIATION 0.89 | 9.5 Child Age in Years STANDARD_DEVIATION 0.86 |
| Caregiver mean level of education High School Graduate or Less | 35 Participants | 13 Participants | 22 Participants |
| Caregiver mean level of education Partial College/Specialized Training | 66 Participants | 30 Participants | 36 Participants |
| Caregiver mean level of education Standard College or Graduate Degree | 81 Participants | 51 Participants | 30 Participants |
| Child Anxiety (Behavioral Assessment System for Children - Third Edition; BASC-3 | 53.9 T-Score STANDARD_DEVIATION 10.8 | 54.1 T-Score STANDARD_DEVIATION 11.8 | 53.7 T-Score STANDARD_DEVIATION 9.7 |
| Child Attention Problems (Behavior Assessment Scale for Children, Third Edition; BASC-3) | 63.0 T-score STANDARD_DEVIATION 8.1 | 61.2 T-score STANDARD_DEVIATION 8.4 | 65.1 T-score STANDARD_DEVIATION 7.4 |
| Child Autism Spectrum Rating Scale | 52.5 T-Score STANDARD_DEVIATION 9.8 | 50.9 T-Score STANDARD_DEVIATION 10.8 | 54.1 T-Score STANDARD_DEVIATION 8.3 |
| Child Grade in School Grade 3 | 64 Participants | 27 Participants | 37 Participants |
| Child Grade in School Grade 4 | 78 Participants | 46 Participants | 32 Participants |
| Child Grade in School Grade 5 | 43 Participants | 24 Participants | 19 Participants |
| Ethnicity (NIH/OMB) Hispanic or Latino | 23 Participants | 10 Participants | 13 Participants |
| Ethnicity (NIH/OMB) Not Hispanic or Latino | 162 Participants | 87 Participants | 75 Participants |
| Ethnicity (NIH/OMB) Unknown or Not Reported | 0 Participants | 0 Participants | 0 Participants |
| Family Neighborhood Area Deprivation Index, National Percentile | 45.7 Percentile STANDARD_DEVIATION 24.8 | 39.3 Percentile STANDARD_DEVIATION 24.1 | 52.8 Percentile STANDARD_DEVIATION 23.8 |
| Race (NIH/OMB) American Indian or Alaska Native | 0 Participants | 0 Participants | 0 Participants |
| Race (NIH/OMB) Asian | 6 Participants | 5 Participants | 1 Participants |
| Race (NIH/OMB) Black or African American | 48 Participants | 25 Participants | 23 Participants |
| Race (NIH/OMB) More than one race | 19 Participants | 11 Participants | 8 Participants |
| Race (NIH/OMB) Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander | 1 Participants | 1 Participants | 0 Participants |
| Race (NIH/OMB) Unknown or Not Reported | 6 Participants | 5 Participants | 1 Participants |
| Race (NIH/OMB) White | 105 Participants | 50 Participants | 55 Participants |
| Region of Enrollment United States | 185 participants | 97 participants | 88 participants |
| Sex: Female, Male Female | 63 Participants | 31 Participants | 32 Participants |
| Sex: Female, Male Male | 122 Participants | 66 Participants | 56 Participants |
Adverse events
| Event type | EG000 affected / at risk | EG001 affected / at risk |
|---|---|---|
| deaths Total, all-cause mortality | 0 / 97 | 0 / 88 |
| other Total, other adverse events | 0 / 97 | 0 / 88 |
| serious Total, serious adverse events | 0 / 97 | 0 / 88 |
Outcome results
Primary
Students' Organizational Functioning - Parent Report
The Children's Organizational Skills Scales - Parent Version (COSS-P) was used to assess changes in OTMP functioning at home and school over several time points. COSS total scores have good discriminant validity and are sensitive to treatment effects. Each COSS version uses a 4-point rating scale (1=Hardly ever or never to 4=Just about all of the time). Higher scores indicate a worse outcome. Although the COSS yields three subscale scores, only the 26-item total score was used to reduce the number of measures in the analyses. The mean item score was calculated and used in analyses; possible range is from 1 to 4.
Time frame: Baseline, 14-weeks (post-treatment), 5-months and 12-months
Population: Note that 183 participants provided data that were analyzed. Data were missing for 2 participants on this measure.
| Arm | Measure | Group | Value (MEAN) |
|---|---|---|---|
| OST-T2 Intervention Group | Students' Organizational Functioning - Parent Report | Baseline | 2.65 scores on a scale |
| OST-T2 Intervention Group | Students' Organizational Functioning - Parent Report | Post-Treatment (14 weeks) | 2.20 scores on a scale |
| OST-T2 Intervention Group | Students' Organizational Functioning - Parent Report | 5-month follow-up (22 weeks) | 2.25 scores on a scale |
| OST-T2 Intervention Group | Students' Organizational Functioning - Parent Report | 12-month follow-up (55 weeks) | 2.33 scores on a scale |
| Treatment as Usual Wait List Control Group | Students' Organizational Functioning - Parent Report | 12-month follow-up (55 weeks) | 2.35 scores on a scale |
| Treatment as Usual Wait List Control Group | Students' Organizational Functioning - Parent Report | Baseline | 2.59 scores on a scale |
| Treatment as Usual Wait List Control Group | Students' Organizational Functioning - Parent Report | 5-month follow-up (22 weeks) | 2.53 scores on a scale |
| Treatment as Usual Wait List Control Group | Students' Organizational Functioning - Parent Report | Post-Treatment (14 weeks) | 2.51 scores on a scale |
p-value: <0.001Mixed Models Analysis
Primary
Students' Organizational Functioning - Teacher Report
The Children's Organizational Skills Scales - Teacher Version (COSS-T) was used to assess changes in OTMP functioning at home and school over several time points. COSS total scores have good discriminant validity and are sensitive to treatment effects. Each COSS version uses a 4-point rating scale (1=Hardly ever or never to 4=Just about all of the time). Higher scores indicate a worse outcome. Although the COSS yields three subscale scores, only the total score of 28 items was used to reduce the number of measures in the analyses. The mean item score was calculated and used in analyses; possible range is from 1 to 4.
Time frame: Baseline, 14-weeks (post-treatment), 5-months and 12-months
Population: Note that 180 participants provided data that were analyzed. Data were missing for 5 participants on this measure.
| Arm | Measure | Group | Value (MEAN) |
|---|---|---|---|
| OST-T2 Intervention Group | Students' Organizational Functioning - Teacher Report | Baseline | 2.89 scores on a scale |
| OST-T2 Intervention Group | Students' Organizational Functioning - Teacher Report | Post-treatment (14 weeks) | 2.27 scores on a scale |
| OST-T2 Intervention Group | Students' Organizational Functioning - Teacher Report | 5-month follow-up (22 weeks) | 2.32 scores on a scale |
| OST-T2 Intervention Group | Students' Organizational Functioning - Teacher Report | 12-month follow-up (55 weeks) | 2.40 scores on a scale |
| Treatment as Usual Wait List Control Group | Students' Organizational Functioning - Teacher Report | 12-month follow-up (55 weeks) | 2.57 scores on a scale |
| Treatment as Usual Wait List Control Group | Students' Organizational Functioning - Teacher Report | Baseline | 2.86 scores on a scale |
| Treatment as Usual Wait List Control Group | Students' Organizational Functioning - Teacher Report | 5-month follow-up (22 weeks) | 2.71 scores on a scale |
| Treatment as Usual Wait List Control Group | Students' Organizational Functioning - Teacher Report | Post-treatment (14 weeks) | 2.71 scores on a scale |
p-value: <0.001Mixed Models Analysis
Secondary
Student Academic Competence
The Academic Competence Evaluation Scales (ACES) is a teacher-report scale that assesses changes in the academic competence of students in kindergarten through grade 12. The Reading/Language Arts and Math subscales of this measure were used. Items are rated from 1 = far below to 5 = far above grade level. Higher scores indicate better outcome. Alpha coefficients and test-retest correlations for these subscales have been shown to be above .90. The average item score for Reading/Language Arts (11 items) and Math (8 items) subscales were calculated. Then the average of these subscale scores was used in the analyses. Possible range is from 1 to 5.
Time frame: Baseline, 14-weeks (post-treatment), 5-months and 12-months
Population: Note that 169 participants provided data that were analyzed. Data were missing for 16 participants on this measure.
| Arm | Measure | Group | Value (MEAN) |
|---|---|---|---|
| OST-T2 Intervention Group | Student Academic Competence | Baseline | 2.46 scores on a scale |
| OST-T2 Intervention Group | Student Academic Competence | Post-treatment (14 weeks) | 2.71 scores on a scale |
| OST-T2 Intervention Group | Student Academic Competence | 5-month follow-up (22 weeks) | 2.72 scores on a scale |
| OST-T2 Intervention Group | Student Academic Competence | 12-month follow-up (55 weeks) | 2.63 scores on a scale |
| Treatment as Usual Wait List Control Group | Student Academic Competence | 12-month follow-up (55 weeks) | 2.42 scores on a scale |
| Treatment as Usual Wait List Control Group | Student Academic Competence | Baseline | 2.31 scores on a scale |
| Treatment as Usual Wait List Control Group | Student Academic Competence | 5-month follow-up (22 weeks) | 2.46 scores on a scale |
| Treatment as Usual Wait List Control Group | Student Academic Competence | Post-treatment (14 weeks) | 2.35 scores on a scale |
p-value: >0.0083Mixed Models Analysis
Secondary
Student Academic Grades
Student report card grades for the first marking period of the year students participate in OST-T2/TAU and for the last marking period of the academic year of participation were used to examine impact on academic performance. Grades were harmonized across participating school districts to a uniform grading scale (ranging from low of 1 to high of 4). A composite academic grade score was computed for each student based on their grades in math and reading/language arts (possible range = 1 to 4). Higher scores indicate better outcomes.
Time frame: Baseline, 5-months
Population: Note that 165 participants provided data that were analyzed. Data were missing for 20 participants on this measure.
| Arm | Measure | Group | Value (MEAN) |
|---|---|---|---|
| OST-T2 Intervention Group | Student Academic Grades | Baseline | 2.50 scores on a scale |
| OST-T2 Intervention Group | Student Academic Grades | 5-month follow-up (22 weeks) | 2.72 scores on a scale |
| Treatment as Usual Wait List Control Group | Student Academic Grades | Baseline | 2.52 scores on a scale |
| Treatment as Usual Wait List Control Group | Student Academic Grades | 5-month follow-up (22 weeks) | 2.71 scores on a scale |
p-value: >0.05Mixed Models Analysis
Secondary
Student Academic Proficiency
The Academic Proficiency Scale (APS) is a teacher-report measure that assesses (changes in) proficiency in six academic subjects relative to standard expectations (1=Well below standard expected at this time of year; 3=At standard; 5=Well above standard). Higher scores indicate a better outcome. Ratings were averaged across six academic subjects; mean item score is the unit of analysis. Possible range is from 1 to 5. Reliability is acceptable (alpha = .84), and this measure is sensitive to OST treatment effects.
Time frame: Baseline, 14-weeks (post-treatment), 5-months and 12-months
Population: Note that 180 participants provided data that were analyzed. Data were missing for 5 participants on this measure.
| Arm | Measure | Group | Value (MEAN) |
|---|---|---|---|
| OST-T2 Intervention Group | Student Academic Proficiency | Baseline | 2.59 scores on a scale |
| OST-T2 Intervention Group | Student Academic Proficiency | Post-treatment (14 weeks) | 2.77 scores on a scale |
| OST-T2 Intervention Group | Student Academic Proficiency | 5-month follow-up (22 weeks) | 2.80 scores on a scale |
| OST-T2 Intervention Group | Student Academic Proficiency | 12-month follow-up (55 weeks) | 2.67 scores on a scale |
| Treatment as Usual Wait List Control Group | Student Academic Proficiency | 12-month follow-up (55 weeks) | 2.62 scores on a scale |
| Treatment as Usual Wait List Control Group | Student Academic Proficiency | Baseline | 2.57 scores on a scale |
| Treatment as Usual Wait List Control Group | Student Academic Proficiency | 5-month follow-up (22 weeks) | 2.53 scores on a scale |
| Treatment as Usual Wait List Control Group | Student Academic Proficiency | Post-treatment (14 weeks) | 2.54 scores on a scale |
p-value: <0.06Mixed Models Analysis
Secondary
Student Self-efficacy
Patterns of Adaptive Learning Scales (PALS) was used to evaluate changes in students' perceptions of their ability to overcome challenges to perform their class work (e.g., I can do even the hardest work in this class if I try.). Items are rated on a 5-item scale from 1 = not at all true to 5 = very true. Higher scores indicate better outcomes. Mean item scores were used in analyses; possible range is from 1 to 5.
Time frame: Baseline, 14-weeks (post-treatment), 5-months and 12-months
Population: Note that 181 participants provided data that were analyzed. Data were missing for 4 participants on this measure.
| Arm | Measure | Group | Value (MEAN) |
|---|---|---|---|
| OST-T2 Intervention Group | Student Self-efficacy | Baseline | 3.90 scores on a scale |
| OST-T2 Intervention Group | Student Self-efficacy | Post-treatment (14 weeks) | 4.09 scores on a scale |
| OST-T2 Intervention Group | Student Self-efficacy | 5-month follow-up (22 weeks) | 4.18 scores on a scale |
| OST-T2 Intervention Group | Student Self-efficacy | 12-month follow-up (55 weeks) | 4.12 scores on a scale |
| Treatment as Usual Wait List Control Group | Student Self-efficacy | 12-month follow-up (55 weeks) | 4.22 scores on a scale |
| Treatment as Usual Wait List Control Group | Student Self-efficacy | Baseline | 3.88 scores on a scale |
| Treatment as Usual Wait List Control Group | Student Self-efficacy | 5-month follow-up (22 weeks) | 4.08 scores on a scale |
| Treatment as Usual Wait List Control Group | Student Self-efficacy | Post-treatment (14 weeks) | 3.98 scores on a scale |
p-value: >0.05Mixed Models Analysis
Secondary
Students' Homework Performance - Parent Report
The Homework Problem Checklist (HPC) is a 20-item parent-report measure that was used to assess changes in student homework performance. Parents indicate the frequency with which student engage in behavior during homework time at home on a four-point scale (0 = never to 3 = very often). The psychometric properties of this instrument have been shown to be acceptable, and the HPC was sensitive to treatment effects in the previous OST-C study. The total HPC score was used in the analyses. Higher scores indicate worse outcomes. Mean item score was calculated and used in analyses; possible range is from 0 to 3.
Time frame: Baseline, 14-weeks (post-treatment), 5-months and 12-months
Population: Note that 183 participants provided data that were analyzed. Data were missing for 2 participants on this measure.
| Arm | Measure | Group | Value (MEAN) |
|---|---|---|---|
| OST-T2 Intervention Group | Students' Homework Performance - Parent Report | Baseline | 1.49 scores on a scale |
| OST-T2 Intervention Group | Students' Homework Performance - Parent Report | Post-treatment (14 weeks) | 0.94 scores on a scale |
| OST-T2 Intervention Group | Students' Homework Performance - Parent Report | 5-month follow-up (22 weeks) | 0.97 scores on a scale |
| OST-T2 Intervention Group | Students' Homework Performance - Parent Report | 12-month follow-up (55 weeks) | 1.13 scores on a scale |
| Treatment as Usual Wait List Control Group | Students' Homework Performance - Parent Report | 12-month follow-up (55 weeks) | 1.14 scores on a scale |
| Treatment as Usual Wait List Control Group | Students' Homework Performance - Parent Report | Baseline | 1.35 scores on a scale |
| Treatment as Usual Wait List Control Group | Students' Homework Performance - Parent Report | 5-month follow-up (22 weeks) | 1.26 scores on a scale |
| Treatment as Usual Wait List Control Group | Students' Homework Performance - Parent Report | Post-treatment (14 weeks) | 1.20 scores on a scale |
p-value: <0.001Mixed Models Analysis
Secondary
Students' Homework Performance - Teacher Report
The Homework Performance Questionnaire (HPQ-T)-Teacher version was used to assess changes in students' homework behavior during the past 4 weeks. Each item is rated on a five-point scale corresponding to amount of time student demonstrated the behavior in the previous 4-week period (0 = 0% to 39% of the time; 1 = 40% to 69% of the time; 2 = 70% to 79% of the time; 3 = 80% to 89% of the time; 4 = 90% to 100% of the time).Higher scores indicate better outcome. The 9-item Student Self-Regulation factor was used in the analyses. This factor has been demonstrated to have strong psychometric properties. Mean item score was used in analyses; possible range is from 0 to 4.
Time frame: Baseline, 14-weeks (post-treatment), 5-months and 12-months
Population: Note that 179 participants provided data that were analyzed. Data were missing for 6 participants on this measure.
| Arm | Measure | Group | Value (MEAN) |
|---|---|---|---|
| OST-T2 Intervention Group | Students' Homework Performance - Teacher Report | Baseline | 1.76 scores on a scale |
| OST-T2 Intervention Group | Students' Homework Performance - Teacher Report | Post-treatment (14-weeks) | 2.68 scores on a scale |
| OST-T2 Intervention Group | Students' Homework Performance - Teacher Report | 5-month follow-up (22 weeks) | 2.55 scores on a scale |
| OST-T2 Intervention Group | Students' Homework Performance - Teacher Report | 12-month follow-up (55 weeks) | 1.97 scores on a scale |
| Treatment as Usual Wait List Control Group | Students' Homework Performance - Teacher Report | 12-month follow-up (55 weeks) | 2.14 scores on a scale |
| Treatment as Usual Wait List Control Group | Students' Homework Performance - Teacher Report | Baseline | 2.07 scores on a scale |
| Treatment as Usual Wait List Control Group | Students' Homework Performance - Teacher Report | 5-month follow-up (22 weeks) | 2.44 scores on a scale |
| Treatment as Usual Wait List Control Group | Students' Homework Performance - Teacher Report | Post-treatment (14-weeks) | 2.32 scores on a scale |
p-value: 0.007Mixed Models Analysis