Effects of a Single-session Implicit Theories of Personality Intervention on Early Adolescent Psychopathology

the Children's Depression Inventory, a 27-item self-report questionnaire that measures cognitive, affective, and behavioral symptoms of depression. Items are scored from 0-2, and scores range from 0 to 44; higher scores indicate greater symptom severity. The CDI is reliable and valid. It can distinguish youths with more or less severe depressive symptoms, as well as youths at risk for depression from non-depressed youths. Suicide- and self-harm related questions were removed for the purposes of this study.

Time frame: Baseline and 3-, 6-, and 9-month (final) follow-up

the Children's Depression Inventory, a 27-item self-report questionnaire that measures cognitive, affective, and behavioral symptoms of depression. Items are scored from 0-2, and scores range from 0 to 44; higher scores indicate greater symptom severity. The CDI and the parent analog (CDI-P) is reliable and valid. It can distinguish youths with more or less severe depressive symptoms, as well as youths at risk for depression from non-depressed youths. Suicide- and self-harm related questions were removed for the purposes of this study.

Time frame: Baseline and 3-, 6-, and 9-month (final) follow-up

Anxiety symptoms were assessed at baseline and at each follow-up point using the Screen for Child Anxiety and Related Disorders - Child and Parent versions (SCARED-C/SCARED-P). The SCARED-C and SCARED-P are child and parent versions of the same 41-item questionnaire measure of pediatric anxiety. Both differentiate between clinically anxious and nonanxious psychiatrically ill youth. Youths/parents respond to items using a 3-point Likert scale describing the degree to which statements are true about them; scores range from 0 to 82. Internal consistency, test-retest reliability, and construct validity of the SCARED are strong (Hale, Raaijmakers, Muris, & Meeus, 2005; Myers & Winters, 2002). In this study, the SCARED-C/P Total Scores were used and derived by summing all 41 items, with higher scores reflecting higher levels of anxiety.

Time frame: Baseline and 3-, 6-, and 9-month (final) follow-up

Anxiety symptoms were assessed at baseline and at each follow-up point using the Screen for Child Anxiety and Related Disorders - Child and Parent versions (SCARED-C/SCARED-P). The SCARED-C and SCARED-P are child and parent versions of the same 41-item questionnaire measure of pediatric anxiety. Both differentiate between clinically anxious and nonanxious psychiatrically ill youth. Youths/parents respond to items using a 3-point Likert scale describing the degree to which statements are true about them; scores range from 0 to 82. Internal consistency, test-retest reliability, and construct validity of the SCARED are strong. In this study, the SCARED-C/P Total Scores were used and derived by summing all 41 items, with higher scores reflecting higher levels of anxiety.

Time frame: Baseline and 3-, 6-, and 9-month (final) follow-up

EDA was assessed continuously during the laboratory baseline (5 min prior to the social stress induction), social stress induction, and recovery period (5 min following the social stress induction) using Biopac MP150 hardware at a sampling rate of 1000 readings persecond and a 0.5e1 Hz bandpass filter. EDA was measured with a Biopac GSR100C amplifier and two EDA isotonic gel electrodes placed on the thenar and hypothenar eminences of the child's nondominant hand. EDA data were acquired and analyzed using AcqKnowledge 4.1 Software. Research assistants trained by the first author manually identified and removed artifacts. Averages (expressed in micro-Siemens) for EDA during the baseline, speech preparation, speech, and recovery periods were calculated for each participant. Slopes of EDA change during the recovery were calculated, expressed in microSiemens per second.

Time frame: Assessed at immediate post-intervention only

HRV was assessed; specifically, the time-based root-mean square successive difference of normal-to-normal (N-to-N) intervals (rMSSD). RMSSD equates to mean shifts in the time elapsed between consecutive heartbeats, in milliseconds. It reflects parasympathetically mediated, short-term changes in HRV. More rapid post-stressor increases in rMSSD (during the 5-min post stressor recovery period) indicated a more adaptive recovery trajectory following stress. Here, rMSSD was computed using the Acqknowledge automated time-series HRV analysis function.

Time frame: Assessed at immediate post-intervention only

The PCSC is a 24-item scale measuring perceived ability to exert primary control: to influence or alter objective events or conditions through personal effort. Participants rated agreement with statements about their ability to exert primary control, with half the items worded in a positive direction (e.g., I can do well on tests if I study hard.) and half in a negative direction (e.g., I cannot get other kids to like me no matter how hard I try.). Responses range from very true to very false on a four-point Likert scale. Scores range from 0 to 72, with higher scores indicating higher (more adaptive) levels of perceived primary control.

Time frame: Baseline, immediately post-intervention, and 3-, 6-, and 9-month (final) follow-up

The SCSC is a 20-item scale measuring perceived ability to exert secondary control: to influence the personal psychological impact of objective conditions on oneself, by adjusting oneself to fit those conditions. Item content reflects response patterns associated with various kinds of secondary control, such as finding a silver lining (I can usually find something good to like, even in a bad situation.) and adjusting cognition (When something bad happens, I can find a way to think about it that makes me feel better.). Respondents rate agreement with each item on a 4-point Likert scale from very false to very true. Scores range from 0-60, with higher scores corresponding to higher (more adaptive) levels of perceived secondary control.

Time frame: Baseline, immediately post-intervention, and 3-, 6-, and 9-month (final) follow-up

Parental anxiety symptoms were measured at baseline at 3-, 6-, and 9-month follow-up assessments using the Beck Anxiety Inventory (BAI; Beck & Steer, 1993), a widely-used self-report measure of anxiety in adults for use in clinical, community, and research settings. Respondents report the extent to which they have been bothered by each of 21 symptoms over the preceding week. Each item has four possible answer choices: Not at All; Mildly; Moderately, and Severely. Because the BAI's 21 items (each rated 0 to 3, for a total possible scores ranging from 0 to 63 - higher scores indicate higher levels of anxiety) describe the emotional, physiological, and cognitive symptoms of anxiety but not depression, it can discriminate anxiety from depression in adults.

Time frame: Baseline and 3-, 6-, and 9-month (final) follow-up

Parental depressive symptoms were measured at baseline at 3-, 6-, and 9-month follow-up assessments using the Beck Depression Inventory-II (BDI-II). The BDI is one of the most widely used and evaluated self- report measures of adult depressive symptoms. For each of its 21 items, respondents select among four alternative responses reflecting the increasing levels of symptom severity (0 = no symptom present to 3 = severe symptom present). The total score was used in this study, with a possible score range of 0 to 63 at each assessment point. Higher scores indicate higher levels of depressive symptoms.

Time frame: Baseline and 3-, 6-, and 9-month (final) follow-up

The BFAM is a 14-item parent report questionnaire assessing perceptions of family functioning during the previous 2 weeks. This instrument was created to provide an operational definition and means of measuring the seven constructs in the Process Model of Family Functioning; it includes two items relating to each construct. Items such as We take the time to listen to each other and When things aren't going well it takes too long to work them out are scored on a 5-point scale. Items are summed to create a total score (range: 0-70), with higher scores indicating greater familial dysfunction.

Time frame: Baseline and 3-, 6-, and 9-month (final) follow-up

The Implicit Personality Theory Questionnaire asks participants to indicate on a 1 (really disagree) to 6 (really agree) scale the extent to which they endorse three statements: You have a certain personality, and it is something that you can't do much about; Your personality is something about you that you can't change very much; and Either you have a good personality or you don't, and there is really very little you can do about it. Numerical scores are summed to yield a single, total implicit theory of personality score (score range=0-18); higher scores indicate a stronger entity theory of personality, and lower scores indicate stronger incremental theories of personality.

Time frame: Baseline, immediately post-intervention, and 3-, 6-, and 9-month follow-up