Diabetes
Conditions
Brief summary
The investigators will conduct a comparative effectiveness evaluation using a randomized control trial design of a culturally adapted family model of Diabetes Self-Management Education (Adapted DSME) compared with Standard DSME within the Marshallese population. The family model will cover the same concepts as the standard format. However, the family model will incorporate culturally-adapted education and recommendations aimed at engaging family members in the management of the primary participant's diabetes, and family members will be invited to fully participate in the study. By contrast, the standard model provides diabetes self- management education to the diabetic participant only, and the participant's family members do not participate in the classes or any other part of the study. Biometric and survey data will be collected pre-intervention, post-intervention, 6 months post-intervention, and 12 months post-intervention. A qualitative debriefing session will be held for each family between the final DSME session and the 6 month post-intervention to obtain qualitative data regarding the participant's perceptions of the intervention and implementation process.
Detailed description
Background and Rationale The Marshallese population suffers from a significant and disproportionate burden of type 2 diabetes. The rate of type 2 diabetes among the Marshallese is one of the highest of any population group in the world-at least 400% higher than the general US population.1-7 Our systematic review of local, national, and international data found estimates of diabetes in the Marshallese (populations living both in the US and Marshall Islands) ranging from 30% to 50% compared to 8.3% for the US population and 4% worldwide.4-7 Causes for this disparity have not been completely unraveled and are partially embedded in the history of the Marshall Islands. Between 1946 and 1958, the US military tested nuclear weapons on several of the Marshall Islands. People who inhabited the bombed islands and atolls were relocated, but Marshallese living on nearby atolls that were not evacuated experienced nuclear fallout during and after nuclear tests. Because of the nuclear testing, the Atomic Energy Commission lists the Marshall Islands as one of the most contaminated places in the world, and several studies demonstrate ongoing health effects from the nuclear testing.8 The nuclear contamination resulted in significant and long-term changes in diet and lifestyle of the Marshallese.9-12 These changes in diet and lifestyle have contributed to an increased rate of type 2 diabetes.2-5,16-19 The Compact of Free Association between the Republic of the Marshall Islands (RMI) and the US, signed in 1986, permits the US to conduct military activities in the Marshall Islands and also allows Marshallese individuals to come to the US without a visa. The Marshallese population living in the US tripled between 2000 and 2010, with Arkansas having the largest population of Marshallese living outside of the RMI. Diabetes self-management education (DSME) is an evidence-based model that has been shown to improve glycemic control, reduce diabetic complications, and reduce the cost of managing diabetes. Standard implementation approaches of DSME have not been effective in Marshallese populations, indicating that a unique approach tailored to this population is needed.2-3 Because of the disproportionate burden of diabetes and related complications experienced by this high-risk population, a novel adaptation of the evidence-based DSME model and subsequent testing in a community-based setting are needed. Using a Community Based Participatory Research (CBPR) approach, we have conducted four focus groups and individual interviews with the Marshallese community to better understand how to best address the well-established need for diabetes education. Through interviews and focus groups, Marshallese participants pointed out that the delivery method and the concept of self-management as an individual experience are problematic components. DSME was designed with a very Western societal approach, which is highly individualistic. The Marshallese have a highly collectivist culture and the idea of -self‖ management is counter to their cultural values. As stakeholders described, -we eat together from one pot. For one person to refuse the food from that one pot is not just inconvenient, it is shameful. It shames the person and the person's family. It is not an acceptable option. We will not do it. The interviewees stated that any changes must be a family change. Incorporating collectivist and family concepts into the delivery mechanism is imperative. Through the interviews and focus groups, the Marshallese community suggested that DSME be implemented within a family model with a family group receiving DSME so that the entire family can benefit and the patient can be supported in their effort to make lifestyle changes. Because \ 30-50% of the Marshallese community have type 2 diabetes, this approach could be even more beneficial. Hypothesis and/or Specific Aims or Objectives We hypothesize that a culturally adapted DSME implemented in a family model will result in better diabetes management outcomes compared with standard DSME for the Marshallese. In the family delivery model, a participant is encouraged to invite his/her family members to the diabetes educational sessions. As outlined by stakeholders, the model has several potential benefits. First, patients are empowered to invite the people they define as family and as appropriate for taking part in the sessions with them. Second, the education will engage the patient-defined support unit. Third, given the high-rate of diabetes within the community, it is highly probable that others within the group will have Type 2 diabetes or pre-diabetes and may benefit from the intervention as well. Our aim is to test an Adapted DSME using a mixed-methods approach. Marshallese participants with type 2 diabetes will be recruited. Those who are assigned to the family model will be asked to invite one to ten adult members of their families to participate in the DSME. Given that \ 30-50% of adults in the Marshallese community have type 2 diabetes, and the Marshallese typically have large families, recruitment for this nontraditional model is plausible. Furthermore, the method was designed from input from our CBPR partnership with the Marshallese. This research is highly translational. It will help bridge the gap between knowledge of an effective DSME intervention and actual implementation of the intervention among a Pacific Islander population with especially high rates of type 2 diabetes and significant health disparities.
Interventions
BEHAVIORALAdapted DSME
Participants assigned to this arm received an intervention that includes culturally-adapted DSME with their participating family members in a family/home setting.
BEHAVIORALStandard DSME
Active Comparator: Standard DSME Participants assigned to this arm received standard diabetes self-management education classes offered at community locations, taught by Certified Diabetes Educators (CDEs) in a group/classroom setting.
Sponsors
Patient-Centered Outcomes Research Institute
University of Arkansas
Study design
Allocation
RANDOMIZED
Intervention model
PARALLEL
Primary purpose
OTHER
Masking
NONE
Eligibility
Sex/Gender
ALL
Age
18 Years to No maximum
Healthy volunteers
Yes
Inclusion criteria
Primary Participant: * Must be 18 years or older * Self-reported Diabetes Mellitus Type 2 diagnosis by a health care provider * Self-reported Marshallese ethnicity or descent Secondary (Family) Participant: * Must be 18 years or older
Exclusion criteria
* Younger than 18
Design outcomes
Primary
| Measure | Time frame | Description |
|---|---|---|
| Glycemic Control, Measured by Change in Adjusted Mean HbA1c (%) From Baseline to Immediate Post-intervention, 6 Months Post-intervention, and 12 Months Post-intervention. | Baseline, Immediate post-intervention, 6 months post-intervention, 12 months post-intervention | A Siemens analyzer (point of care) was utilized to calculate HbA1c levels for each participant. The primary outcome measure was change in adjusted mean HbA1c (%) from baseline to immediate post-intervention, 6 months post-intervention, and 12 months post-intervention. Analyses were adjusted for baseline sex, age, education, marital status, employment status, use of diabetes medication, and households containing multiple participants. The mean HbA1c values presented here have been adjusted, whereas the mean HbA1c values presented in the Baseline Data section are unadjusted. |
Secondary
| Measure | Time frame | Description |
|---|---|---|
| Change in Mean BMI From Baseline to Immediate Post-intervention, 6 Months Post-intervention, and 12 Months Post-intervention | Baseline, Immediate post-intervention; 6 months post-intervention; 12 months post-intervention | Participant weight (without shoes) was measured in light clothing to the nearest 0.5 lb (0.2 kg) using a calibrated digital scale. Height (without shoes) was measured to the nearest 0.5 cm using a stadiometer. Weight and height were used to compute a continuous measure of BMI (kg/m²). |
| Change in Mean Total Cholesterol (mg/dL) From Baseline to Immediate Post-intervention, 6 Months Post-intervention, and 12 Months Post-intervention. | Baseline, Immediate post-intervention, 6 months post-intervention, 12 months post-intervention | Through finger prick blood collection, point of care tests were used to test fasting lipids using a commercial lipid panel kit and Cholestech LDX analyzer. Analyses were adjusted for baseline sex, age, education, marital status, employment status, use of diabetes medication, and households containing multiple participants. |
| Change in Mean High-density Lipoproteins (HDL) From Baseline to Immediate Post-intervention, 6 Months Post-intervention, and 12 Months Post-intervention. | Baseline, Immediate post-intervention, 6 months post-intervention, 12 months post-intervention | A commercial lipid panel kit and Cholestech LDX analyzer were used to assess HDL levels. The outcome measure was change in mean HDL from baseline to immediate post-intervention, 6 months post-intervention, and 12 months post-intervention. Analyses were adjusted for baseline sex, age, education, marital status, employment status, use of diabetes medication, and households containing multiple participants. |
| Change in Probability of Performing Diabetes Self-care Behaviors From Baseline to 12 Months Post-intervention: Check Blood Glucose Daily | Baseline, 12 months post-intervention | This measure assesses whether or not each participant reported checking her/his blood glucose at least daily at baseline and 12 months post-intervention. This measure of participant-reported current level of diabetes self-care was assessed through an item from the Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System (BRFSS) Diabetes Module. (Because three of the diabetes self-care behaviors we assessed are expected to occur annually (e.g., annual doctor visit), analyses of self-care behaviors focus on change from baseline to 12 months post-intervention to allow for a year to elapse between time points.) |
| Change in Probability of Performing Diabetes Self-care Behaviors From Baseline to 12 Months Post-intervention: Seen Doctor or Other Health Professional in Past 12 Months for Diabetes | Baseline, 12 months post-intervention | This measure assesses whether or not each participant reported seeing a doctor, nurse, or other health professional for her/his diabetes within the past 12 months at baseline and 12 months post-intervention. This measure of participant-reported current level of diabetes self-care was assessed through an item from the Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System (BRFSS) Diabetes Module. (Because three of the diabetes self-care behaviors we assessed are expected to occur annually (e.g., annual doctor visit), analyses of self-care behaviors focus on change from baseline to 12 months post-intervention to allow for a year to elapse between time points.) |
| Change in Probability of Performing Diabetes Self-care Behaviors From Baseline to 12 Months Post-intervention: Foot Exam by Doctor or Other Health Professional in Past 12 Months | Baseline, 12 Months Post-Intervention | This measure assesses whether or not each participant reported having a health professional check her/his feet for any sores or irritations in the past 12 months at baseline and 12 months post-intervention. This measure of participant-reported current level of diabetes self-care was assessed through an item from the Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System (BRFSS) Diabetes Module. (Because three of the diabetes self-care behaviors we assessed are expected to occur annually (e.g., annual doctor visit), analyses of self-care behaviors focus on change from baseline to 12 months post-intervention to allow for a year to elapse between time points.) |
| Change in Probability of Performing Diabetes Self-care Behaviors From Baseline to 12 Months Post-intervention: Eye Exam in Past 12 Months | Baseline, 12 Months Post-Intervention | This measure assesses whether or not each participant reported having an eye exam in which the pupils were dilated in the past 12 months at baseline and 12 months post-intervention. This measure of participant-reported current level of diabetes self-care was assessed through an item from the Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System (BRFSS) Diabetes Module. (Because three of the diabetes self-care behaviors we assessed are expected to occur annually (e.g., annual doctor visit), analyses of self-care behaviors focus on change from baseline to 12 months post-intervention to allow for a year to elapse between time points.) |
| Change in Probability of Performing Diabetes Self-care Behaviors From Baseline to 12 Months Post-intervention: Maintain a Normal Weight | Baseline, 12 Months Post-Intervention | This measure assesses whether or not each participant had a normal weight at baseline and 12 months post-intervention as indicated by body mass index (i.e., body mass index between 18.5 to 24.9). Participant weight (without shoes) was measured in light clothing to the nearest 0.5 lb (0.2 kg) using a calibrated digital scale. Height (without shoes) was measured to the nearest 0.5 cm using a stadiometer. Weight and height were used to compute a continuous measure of BMI (kg/m²). (Because three of the diabetes self-care behaviors we assessed are expected to occur annually (e.g., annual doctor visit), analyses of self-care behaviors focus on change from baseline to 12 months post-intervention to allow for a year to elapse between time points.) |
| Change in Probability of Performing Diabetes Self-care Behaviors From Baseline to 12 Months Post-intervention: Engage in Recommended Level of Physical Activity | Baseline, 12 Months Post-Intervention | This measure assesses whether or not each participant reported engaging in 60 minutes or more of vigorous activity per week or 150 minutes or more of moderate activity per week at baseline and 12 months post-intervention. This measure was lightly adapted from the measure of physical activity used here: L. Jiang, S. Chen, B. Zhang, J. Beals, C.M. Mitchell, S.M. Manson, et al. Longitudinal patterns of stages of change for exercise and lifestyle intervention outcomes: an application of latent class analysis with distal outcomes. Prev. Sci., 17 (2016), pp. 398-409. (Because three of the diabetes self-care behaviors we assessed are expected to occur annually (e.g., annual doctor visit), analyses of self-care behaviors focus on change from baseline to 12 months post-intervention to allow for a year to elapse between time points.) |
| Change in Mean Fasting Glucose From Baseline to Immediate Post-intervention, 6 Months Post-intervention, and 12 Months Post-intervention | Baseline, Immediate Post-Intervention, 6 Months Post-Intervention, 12 Months Post-Intervention | Informally and in response to a survey item, many participants reported that they had not adhered to instructions to fast before data collection. For this reason, we were unable to collect valid measures for fasting glucose, low-density lipoproteins (LDL), and triglycerides. |
| Change in Mean Low-density Lipoproteins (LDL) From Baseline to Immediate Post-intervention, 6 Months Post-intervention, and 12 Months Post-intervention | Baseline, Immediate Post-Intervention, 6 Months Post-Intervention, 12 Months Post-Intervention | Informally and in response to a survey item, many participants reported that they had not adhered to instructions to fast before data collection. For this reason, we were unable to collect valid measures for fasting glucose, low-density lipoproteins (LDL), and triglycerides. |
| Change in Mean Triglycerides From Baseline to Immediate Post-intervention, 6 Months Post-intervention, and 12 Months Post-intervention | Baseline, Immediate Post-Intervention, 6 Months Post-Intervention, 12 Months Post-Intervention | Informally and in response to a survey item, many participants reported that they had not adhered to instructions to fast before data collection. For this reason, we were unable to collect valid measures for fasting glucose, low-density lipoproteins (LDL), and triglycerides. |
Countries
United States
Participant flow
Participants by arm
| Arm | Count |
|---|---|
| Adapted DSME Participants assigned to this arm received an intervention that includes culturally-adapted DSME with their participating family members in a family/home setting. | 110 |
| Standard DSME Participants assigned to this arm received standard diabetes self-management education classes offered at community locations, taught by Certified Diabetes Educators (CDEs) in a group/classroom setting. | 111 |
| Total | 221 |
Baseline characteristics
| Characteristic | Adapted DSME | Standard DSME | Total |
|---|---|---|---|
| Age, Continuous | 51.4 years STANDARD_DEVIATION 11.1 | 53.0 years STANDARD_DEVIATION 10.6 | 52.2 years STANDARD_DEVIATION 10.8 |
| HbA1c (%) (unadjusted) | 10.51 Percent Glycated Hemoglobin (unadjusted) STANDARD_DEVIATION 2.37 | 10.41 Percent Glycated Hemoglobin (unadjusted) STANDARD_DEVIATION 2.22 | 10.46 Percent Glycated Hemoglobin (unadjusted) STANDARD_DEVIATION 2.29 |
| Race (NIH/OMB) American Indian or Alaska Native | 0 Participants | 0 Participants | 0 Participants |
| Race (NIH/OMB) Asian | 0 Participants | 0 Participants | 0 Participants |
| Race (NIH/OMB) Black or African American | 0 Participants | 0 Participants | 0 Participants |
| Race (NIH/OMB) More than one race | 0 Participants | 0 Participants | 0 Participants |
| Race (NIH/OMB) Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander | 110 Participants | 111 Participants | 221 Participants |
| Race (NIH/OMB) Unknown or Not Reported | 0 Participants | 0 Participants | 0 Participants |
| Race (NIH/OMB) White | 0 Participants | 0 Participants | 0 Participants |
| Region of Enrollment United States | 110 participants | 111 participants | 221 participants |
| Sex: Female, Male Female | 58 Participants | 72 Participants | 130 Participants |
| Sex: Female, Male Male | 52 Participants | 39 Participants | 91 Participants |
Adverse events
| Event type | EG000 affected / at risk | EG001 affected / at risk |
|---|---|---|
| deaths Total, all-cause mortality | 1 / 111 | 3 / 110 |
| other Total, other adverse events | 0 / 111 | 0 / 110 |
| serious Total, serious adverse events | 0 / 111 | 0 / 110 |
Outcome results
Primary
Glycemic Control, Measured by Change in Adjusted Mean HbA1c (%) From Baseline to Immediate Post-intervention, 6 Months Post-intervention, and 12 Months Post-intervention.
A Siemens analyzer (point of care) was utilized to calculate HbA1c levels for each participant. The primary outcome measure was change in adjusted mean HbA1c (%) from baseline to immediate post-intervention, 6 months post-intervention, and 12 months post-intervention. Analyses were adjusted for baseline sex, age, education, marital status, employment status, use of diabetes medication, and households containing multiple participants. The mean HbA1c values presented here have been adjusted, whereas the mean HbA1c values presented in the Baseline Data section are unadjusted.
Time frame: Baseline, Immediate post-intervention, 6 months post-intervention, 12 months post-intervention
| Arm | Measure | Group | Value (MEAN) |
|---|---|---|---|
| Adapted DSME | Glycemic Control, Measured by Change in Adjusted Mean HbA1c (%) From Baseline to Immediate Post-intervention, 6 Months Post-intervention, and 12 Months Post-intervention. | Baseline | 10.48 Percent Glycated Hemoglobin (adjusted) |
| Adapted DSME | Glycemic Control, Measured by Change in Adjusted Mean HbA1c (%) From Baseline to Immediate Post-intervention, 6 Months Post-intervention, and 12 Months Post-intervention. | Immediate post-intervention | 9.30 Percent Glycated Hemoglobin (adjusted) |
| Adapted DSME | Glycemic Control, Measured by Change in Adjusted Mean HbA1c (%) From Baseline to Immediate Post-intervention, 6 Months Post-intervention, and 12 Months Post-intervention. | 6 months post-intervention | 9.81 Percent Glycated Hemoglobin (adjusted) |
| Adapted DSME | Glycemic Control, Measured by Change in Adjusted Mean HbA1c (%) From Baseline to Immediate Post-intervention, 6 Months Post-intervention, and 12 Months Post-intervention. | 12 months post-intervention | 9.61 Percent Glycated Hemoglobin (adjusted) |
| Standard DSME | Glycemic Control, Measured by Change in Adjusted Mean HbA1c (%) From Baseline to Immediate Post-intervention, 6 Months Post-intervention, and 12 Months Post-intervention. | 12 months post-intervention | 10.38 Percent Glycated Hemoglobin (adjusted) |
| Standard DSME | Glycemic Control, Measured by Change in Adjusted Mean HbA1c (%) From Baseline to Immediate Post-intervention, 6 Months Post-intervention, and 12 Months Post-intervention. | Baseline | 10.46 Percent Glycated Hemoglobin (adjusted) |
| Standard DSME | Glycemic Control, Measured by Change in Adjusted Mean HbA1c (%) From Baseline to Immediate Post-intervention, 6 Months Post-intervention, and 12 Months Post-intervention. | 6 months post-intervention | 10.26 Percent Glycated Hemoglobin (adjusted) |
| Standard DSME | Glycemic Control, Measured by Change in Adjusted Mean HbA1c (%) From Baseline to Immediate Post-intervention, 6 Months Post-intervention, and 12 Months Post-intervention. | Immediate post-intervention | 9.91 Percent Glycated Hemoglobin (adjusted) |
Comparison: The outcome variable for these analyses is Change in mean HbA1c from baseline to immediate post-intervention, 6 months post-intervention, and 12 months post-intervention.p-value: 0.038Linear mixed effects regression
Secondary
Change in Mean BMI From Baseline to Immediate Post-intervention, 6 Months Post-intervention, and 12 Months Post-intervention
Participant weight (without shoes) was measured in light clothing to the nearest 0.5 lb (0.2 kg) using a calibrated digital scale. Height (without shoes) was measured to the nearest 0.5 cm using a stadiometer. Weight and height were used to compute a continuous measure of BMI (kg/m²).
Time frame: Baseline, Immediate post-intervention; 6 months post-intervention; 12 months post-intervention
| Arm | Measure | Group | Value (MEAN) |
|---|---|---|---|
| Adapted DSME | Change in Mean BMI From Baseline to Immediate Post-intervention, 6 Months Post-intervention, and 12 Months Post-intervention | Baseline | 30.58 BMI (kg/m²) |
| Adapted DSME | Change in Mean BMI From Baseline to Immediate Post-intervention, 6 Months Post-intervention, and 12 Months Post-intervention | Immediate post-intervention | 30.66 BMI (kg/m²) |
| Adapted DSME | Change in Mean BMI From Baseline to Immediate Post-intervention, 6 Months Post-intervention, and 12 Months Post-intervention | 6 months post-intervention | 30.97 BMI (kg/m²) |
| Adapted DSME | Change in Mean BMI From Baseline to Immediate Post-intervention, 6 Months Post-intervention, and 12 Months Post-intervention | 12 months post-intervention | 30.78 BMI (kg/m²) |
| Standard DSME | Change in Mean BMI From Baseline to Immediate Post-intervention, 6 Months Post-intervention, and 12 Months Post-intervention | 12 months post-intervention | 31.32 BMI (kg/m²) |
| Standard DSME | Change in Mean BMI From Baseline to Immediate Post-intervention, 6 Months Post-intervention, and 12 Months Post-intervention | Baseline | 31.46 BMI (kg/m²) |
| Standard DSME | Change in Mean BMI From Baseline to Immediate Post-intervention, 6 Months Post-intervention, and 12 Months Post-intervention | 6 months post-intervention | 31.39 BMI (kg/m²) |
| Standard DSME | Change in Mean BMI From Baseline to Immediate Post-intervention, 6 Months Post-intervention, and 12 Months Post-intervention | Immediate post-intervention | 31.49 BMI (kg/m²) |
Comparison: The outcome variable for these analyses is Change in mean BMI from baseline to immediate post-intervention, 6 months post-intervention, and 12 months post-intervention.p-value: 0.234Linear mixed effects regression
Secondary
Change in Mean Fasting Glucose From Baseline to Immediate Post-intervention, 6 Months Post-intervention, and 12 Months Post-intervention
Informally and in response to a survey item, many participants reported that they had not adhered to instructions to fast before data collection. For this reason, we were unable to collect valid measures for fasting glucose, low-density lipoproteins (LDL), and triglycerides.
Time frame: Baseline, Immediate Post-Intervention, 6 Months Post-Intervention, 12 Months Post-Intervention
Secondary
Change in Mean High-density Lipoproteins (HDL) From Baseline to Immediate Post-intervention, 6 Months Post-intervention, and 12 Months Post-intervention.
A commercial lipid panel kit and Cholestech LDX analyzer were used to assess HDL levels. The outcome measure was change in mean HDL from baseline to immediate post-intervention, 6 months post-intervention, and 12 months post-intervention. Analyses were adjusted for baseline sex, age, education, marital status, employment status, use of diabetes medication, and households containing multiple participants.
Time frame: Baseline, Immediate post-intervention, 6 months post-intervention, 12 months post-intervention
| Arm | Measure | Group | Value (MEAN) |
|---|---|---|---|
| Adapted DSME | Change in Mean High-density Lipoproteins (HDL) From Baseline to Immediate Post-intervention, 6 Months Post-intervention, and 12 Months Post-intervention. | Baseline | 36.43 HDL (mg/dL) |
| Adapted DSME | Change in Mean High-density Lipoproteins (HDL) From Baseline to Immediate Post-intervention, 6 Months Post-intervention, and 12 Months Post-intervention. | Immediate post-intervention | 37.53 HDL (mg/dL) |
| Adapted DSME | Change in Mean High-density Lipoproteins (HDL) From Baseline to Immediate Post-intervention, 6 Months Post-intervention, and 12 Months Post-intervention. | 6 months post-intervention | 39.34 HDL (mg/dL) |
| Adapted DSME | Change in Mean High-density Lipoproteins (HDL) From Baseline to Immediate Post-intervention, 6 Months Post-intervention, and 12 Months Post-intervention. | 12 months post-intervention | 37.50 HDL (mg/dL) |
| Standard DSME | Change in Mean High-density Lipoproteins (HDL) From Baseline to Immediate Post-intervention, 6 Months Post-intervention, and 12 Months Post-intervention. | 12 months post-intervention | 35.58 HDL (mg/dL) |
| Standard DSME | Change in Mean High-density Lipoproteins (HDL) From Baseline to Immediate Post-intervention, 6 Months Post-intervention, and 12 Months Post-intervention. | Baseline | 36.99 HDL (mg/dL) |
| Standard DSME | Change in Mean High-density Lipoproteins (HDL) From Baseline to Immediate Post-intervention, 6 Months Post-intervention, and 12 Months Post-intervention. | 6 months post-intervention | 35.49 HDL (mg/dL) |
| Standard DSME | Change in Mean High-density Lipoproteins (HDL) From Baseline to Immediate Post-intervention, 6 Months Post-intervention, and 12 Months Post-intervention. | Immediate post-intervention | 35.63 HDL (mg/dL) |
Comparison: The outcome variable for these analyses is Change in mean HDL (mg/dL) from baseline to immediate post-intervention, 6 months post-intervention, and 12 months post-intervention.p-value: 0.186Linear mixed effects regression
Secondary
Change in Mean Low-density Lipoproteins (LDL) From Baseline to Immediate Post-intervention, 6 Months Post-intervention, and 12 Months Post-intervention
Informally and in response to a survey item, many participants reported that they had not adhered to instructions to fast before data collection. For this reason, we were unable to collect valid measures for fasting glucose, low-density lipoproteins (LDL), and triglycerides.
Time frame: Baseline, Immediate Post-Intervention, 6 Months Post-Intervention, 12 Months Post-Intervention
Secondary
Change in Mean Total Cholesterol (mg/dL) From Baseline to Immediate Post-intervention, 6 Months Post-intervention, and 12 Months Post-intervention.
Through finger prick blood collection, point of care tests were used to test fasting lipids using a commercial lipid panel kit and Cholestech LDX analyzer. Analyses were adjusted for baseline sex, age, education, marital status, employment status, use of diabetes medication, and households containing multiple participants.
Time frame: Baseline, Immediate post-intervention, 6 months post-intervention, 12 months post-intervention
| Arm | Measure | Group | Value (MEAN) |
|---|---|---|---|
| Adapted DSME | Change in Mean Total Cholesterol (mg/dL) From Baseline to Immediate Post-intervention, 6 Months Post-intervention, and 12 Months Post-intervention. | Baseline | 181.39 Total Cholesterol (mg/dL) |
| Adapted DSME | Change in Mean Total Cholesterol (mg/dL) From Baseline to Immediate Post-intervention, 6 Months Post-intervention, and 12 Months Post-intervention. | Immediate post-intervention | 170.15 Total Cholesterol (mg/dL) |
| Adapted DSME | Change in Mean Total Cholesterol (mg/dL) From Baseline to Immediate Post-intervention, 6 Months Post-intervention, and 12 Months Post-intervention. | 6 months post-intervention | 178.69 Total Cholesterol (mg/dL) |
| Adapted DSME | Change in Mean Total Cholesterol (mg/dL) From Baseline to Immediate Post-intervention, 6 Months Post-intervention, and 12 Months Post-intervention. | 12 months post-intervention | 170.88 Total Cholesterol (mg/dL) |
| Standard DSME | Change in Mean Total Cholesterol (mg/dL) From Baseline to Immediate Post-intervention, 6 Months Post-intervention, and 12 Months Post-intervention. | 12 months post-intervention | 180.79 Total Cholesterol (mg/dL) |
| Standard DSME | Change in Mean Total Cholesterol (mg/dL) From Baseline to Immediate Post-intervention, 6 Months Post-intervention, and 12 Months Post-intervention. | Baseline | 189.08 Total Cholesterol (mg/dL) |
| Standard DSME | Change in Mean Total Cholesterol (mg/dL) From Baseline to Immediate Post-intervention, 6 Months Post-intervention, and 12 Months Post-intervention. | 6 months post-intervention | 175.84 Total Cholesterol (mg/dL) |
| Standard DSME | Change in Mean Total Cholesterol (mg/dL) From Baseline to Immediate Post-intervention, 6 Months Post-intervention, and 12 Months Post-intervention. | Immediate post-intervention | 182.64 Total Cholesterol (mg/dL) |
Comparison: The outcome variable for these analyses is Change in mean Total Cholesterol (mg/dL) from baseline to immediate post-intervention, 6 months post-intervention, and 12 months post-intervention.p-value: 0.019Linear mixed effects regression
Secondary
Change in Mean Triglycerides From Baseline to Immediate Post-intervention, 6 Months Post-intervention, and 12 Months Post-intervention
Informally and in response to a survey item, many participants reported that they had not adhered to instructions to fast before data collection. For this reason, we were unable to collect valid measures for fasting glucose, low-density lipoproteins (LDL), and triglycerides.
Time frame: Baseline, Immediate Post-Intervention, 6 Months Post-Intervention, 12 Months Post-Intervention
Secondary
Change in Probability of Performing Diabetes Self-care Behaviors From Baseline to 12 Months Post-intervention: Check Blood Glucose Daily
This measure assesses whether or not each participant reported checking her/his blood glucose at least daily at baseline and 12 months post-intervention. This measure of participant-reported current level of diabetes self-care was assessed through an item from the Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System (BRFSS) Diabetes Module. (Because three of the diabetes self-care behaviors we assessed are expected to occur annually (e.g., annual doctor visit), analyses of self-care behaviors focus on change from baseline to 12 months post-intervention to allow for a year to elapse between time points.)
Time frame: Baseline, 12 months post-intervention
| Arm | Measure | Group | Value (MEAN) |
|---|---|---|---|
| Adapted DSME | Change in Probability of Performing Diabetes Self-care Behaviors From Baseline to 12 Months Post-intervention: Check Blood Glucose Daily | Baseline probability | 0.44 Probability |
| Adapted DSME | Change in Probability of Performing Diabetes Self-care Behaviors From Baseline to 12 Months Post-intervention: Check Blood Glucose Daily | 12 months probability | 0.94 Probability |
| Standard DSME | Change in Probability of Performing Diabetes Self-care Behaviors From Baseline to 12 Months Post-intervention: Check Blood Glucose Daily | Baseline probability | 0.53 Probability |
| Standard DSME | Change in Probability of Performing Diabetes Self-care Behaviors From Baseline to 12 Months Post-intervention: Check Blood Glucose Daily | 12 months probability | 0.82 Probability |
Comparison: To facilitate interpretation of regression coefficients, estimates obtained in the logit scale (log odds) were transformed into probability scale.p-value: 0.04Mixed effects logistic regression
Secondary
Change in Probability of Performing Diabetes Self-care Behaviors From Baseline to 12 Months Post-intervention: Engage in Recommended Level of Physical Activity
This measure assesses whether or not each participant reported engaging in 60 minutes or more of vigorous activity per week or 150 minutes or more of moderate activity per week at baseline and 12 months post-intervention. This measure was lightly adapted from the measure of physical activity used here: L. Jiang, S. Chen, B. Zhang, J. Beals, C.M. Mitchell, S.M. Manson, et al. Longitudinal patterns of stages of change for exercise and lifestyle intervention outcomes: an application of latent class analysis with distal outcomes. Prev. Sci., 17 (2016), pp. 398-409. (Because three of the diabetes self-care behaviors we assessed are expected to occur annually (e.g., annual doctor visit), analyses of self-care behaviors focus on change from baseline to 12 months post-intervention to allow for a year to elapse between time points.)
Time frame: Baseline, 12 Months Post-Intervention
| Arm | Measure | Group | Value (MEAN) |
|---|---|---|---|
| Adapted DSME | Change in Probability of Performing Diabetes Self-care Behaviors From Baseline to 12 Months Post-intervention: Engage in Recommended Level of Physical Activity | Baseline probability | 0.09 Probability |
| Adapted DSME | Change in Probability of Performing Diabetes Self-care Behaviors From Baseline to 12 Months Post-intervention: Engage in Recommended Level of Physical Activity | 12 months probability | 0.09 Probability |
| Standard DSME | Change in Probability of Performing Diabetes Self-care Behaviors From Baseline to 12 Months Post-intervention: Engage in Recommended Level of Physical Activity | Baseline probability | 0.04 Probability |
| Standard DSME | Change in Probability of Performing Diabetes Self-care Behaviors From Baseline to 12 Months Post-intervention: Engage in Recommended Level of Physical Activity | 12 months probability | 0.05 Probability |
Comparison: To facilitate interpretation of regression coefficients, estimates obtained in the logit scale (log odds) were transformed into probability scale.p-value: 0.326Mixed effects logistic regression
Secondary
Change in Probability of Performing Diabetes Self-care Behaviors From Baseline to 12 Months Post-intervention: Eye Exam in Past 12 Months
This measure assesses whether or not each participant reported having an eye exam in which the pupils were dilated in the past 12 months at baseline and 12 months post-intervention. This measure of participant-reported current level of diabetes self-care was assessed through an item from the Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System (BRFSS) Diabetes Module. (Because three of the diabetes self-care behaviors we assessed are expected to occur annually (e.g., annual doctor visit), analyses of self-care behaviors focus on change from baseline to 12 months post-intervention to allow for a year to elapse between time points.)
Time frame: Baseline, 12 Months Post-Intervention
| Arm | Measure | Group | Value (MEAN) |
|---|---|---|---|
| Adapted DSME | Change in Probability of Performing Diabetes Self-care Behaviors From Baseline to 12 Months Post-intervention: Eye Exam in Past 12 Months | Baseline probability | 0.35 Probability |
| Adapted DSME | Change in Probability of Performing Diabetes Self-care Behaviors From Baseline to 12 Months Post-intervention: Eye Exam in Past 12 Months | 12 months probability | 0.41 Probability |
| Standard DSME | Change in Probability of Performing Diabetes Self-care Behaviors From Baseline to 12 Months Post-intervention: Eye Exam in Past 12 Months | Baseline probability | 0.34 Probability |
| Standard DSME | Change in Probability of Performing Diabetes Self-care Behaviors From Baseline to 12 Months Post-intervention: Eye Exam in Past 12 Months | 12 months probability | 0.41 Probability |
Comparison: To facilitate interpretation of regression coefficients, estimates obtained in the logit scale (log odds) were transformed into probability scale.p-value: 0.957Mixed effects logistic regression
Secondary
Change in Probability of Performing Diabetes Self-care Behaviors From Baseline to 12 Months Post-intervention: Foot Exam by Doctor or Other Health Professional in Past 12 Months
This measure assesses whether or not each participant reported having a health professional check her/his feet for any sores or irritations in the past 12 months at baseline and 12 months post-intervention. This measure of participant-reported current level of diabetes self-care was assessed through an item from the Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System (BRFSS) Diabetes Module. (Because three of the diabetes self-care behaviors we assessed are expected to occur annually (e.g., annual doctor visit), analyses of self-care behaviors focus on change from baseline to 12 months post-intervention to allow for a year to elapse between time points.)
Time frame: Baseline, 12 Months Post-Intervention
| Arm | Measure | Group | Value (MEAN) |
|---|---|---|---|
| Adapted DSME | Change in Probability of Performing Diabetes Self-care Behaviors From Baseline to 12 Months Post-intervention: Foot Exam by Doctor or Other Health Professional in Past 12 Months | Baseline probability | 0.49 Probability |
| Adapted DSME | Change in Probability of Performing Diabetes Self-care Behaviors From Baseline to 12 Months Post-intervention: Foot Exam by Doctor or Other Health Professional in Past 12 Months | 12 months probability | 0.53 Probability |
| Standard DSME | Change in Probability of Performing Diabetes Self-care Behaviors From Baseline to 12 Months Post-intervention: Foot Exam by Doctor or Other Health Professional in Past 12 Months | Baseline probability | 0.47 Probability |
| Standard DSME | Change in Probability of Performing Diabetes Self-care Behaviors From Baseline to 12 Months Post-intervention: Foot Exam by Doctor or Other Health Professional in Past 12 Months | 12 months probability | 0.49 Probability |
Comparison: To facilitate interpretation of regression coefficients, estimates obtained in the logit scale (log odds) were transformed into probability scale.p-value: 0.622Mixed effects logistic regression
Secondary
Change in Probability of Performing Diabetes Self-care Behaviors From Baseline to 12 Months Post-intervention: Maintain a Normal Weight
This measure assesses whether or not each participant had a normal weight at baseline and 12 months post-intervention as indicated by body mass index (i.e., body mass index between 18.5 to 24.9). Participant weight (without shoes) was measured in light clothing to the nearest 0.5 lb (0.2 kg) using a calibrated digital scale. Height (without shoes) was measured to the nearest 0.5 cm using a stadiometer. Weight and height were used to compute a continuous measure of BMI (kg/m²). (Because three of the diabetes self-care behaviors we assessed are expected to occur annually (e.g., annual doctor visit), analyses of self-care behaviors focus on change from baseline to 12 months post-intervention to allow for a year to elapse between time points.)
Time frame: Baseline, 12 Months Post-Intervention
| Arm | Measure | Group | Value (MEAN) |
|---|---|---|---|
| Adapted DSME | Change in Probability of Performing Diabetes Self-care Behaviors From Baseline to 12 Months Post-intervention: Maintain a Normal Weight | Baseline probability | 0.14 Probability |
| Adapted DSME | Change in Probability of Performing Diabetes Self-care Behaviors From Baseline to 12 Months Post-intervention: Maintain a Normal Weight | 12 months probability | 0.14 Probability |
| Standard DSME | Change in Probability of Performing Diabetes Self-care Behaviors From Baseline to 12 Months Post-intervention: Maintain a Normal Weight | Baseline probability | 0.07 Probability |
| Standard DSME | Change in Probability of Performing Diabetes Self-care Behaviors From Baseline to 12 Months Post-intervention: Maintain a Normal Weight | 12 months probability | 0.08 Probability |
Comparison: To facilitate interpretation of regression coefficients, estimates obtained in the logit scale (log odds) were transformed into probability scale.p-value: 0.147Mixed effects logistic regression
Secondary
Change in Probability of Performing Diabetes Self-care Behaviors From Baseline to 12 Months Post-intervention: Seen Doctor or Other Health Professional in Past 12 Months for Diabetes
This measure assesses whether or not each participant reported seeing a doctor, nurse, or other health professional for her/his diabetes within the past 12 months at baseline and 12 months post-intervention. This measure of participant-reported current level of diabetes self-care was assessed through an item from the Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System (BRFSS) Diabetes Module. (Because three of the diabetes self-care behaviors we assessed are expected to occur annually (e.g., annual doctor visit), analyses of self-care behaviors focus on change from baseline to 12 months post-intervention to allow for a year to elapse between time points.)
Time frame: Baseline, 12 months post-intervention
| Arm | Measure | Group | Value (MEAN) |
|---|---|---|---|
| Adapted DSME | Change in Probability of Performing Diabetes Self-care Behaviors From Baseline to 12 Months Post-intervention: Seen Doctor or Other Health Professional in Past 12 Months for Diabetes | Baseline probability | 0.77 Probability |
| Adapted DSME | Change in Probability of Performing Diabetes Self-care Behaviors From Baseline to 12 Months Post-intervention: Seen Doctor or Other Health Professional in Past 12 Months for Diabetes | 12 months probability | 0.92 Probability |
| Standard DSME | Change in Probability of Performing Diabetes Self-care Behaviors From Baseline to 12 Months Post-intervention: Seen Doctor or Other Health Professional in Past 12 Months for Diabetes | Baseline probability | 0.82 Probability |
| Standard DSME | Change in Probability of Performing Diabetes Self-care Behaviors From Baseline to 12 Months Post-intervention: Seen Doctor or Other Health Professional in Past 12 Months for Diabetes | 12 months probability | 0.88 Probability |
Comparison: To facilitate interpretation of regression coefficients, estimates obtained in the logit scale (log odds) were transformed into probability scale.p-value: 0.312Mixed Effects Logistic Regression