Appetite and General Nutritional Disorders
Conditions
Brief summary
To determine whether the consumption of a beef-rich lunch improves appetite control, satiety, and energy intake regulation while reducing food reward and food cravings compared to the consumption of a soy-rich lunch when matched for macronutrients and fiber content or when match for serving size. The mechanisms of action surrounding the differential responses of beef versus soy proteins were also explored.
Detailed description
A randomized, crossover design, acute study was completed in 21 healthy adults (age 23 ±1 y; BMI: 23.8 ± 0.6 kg/m2) to compare 400 kcal lunch meals varying in protein quality. Two separate comparisons were performed. The first comparison consisted of macronutrient and fiber-matched lunches which varied in protein quality: 24 g beef protein vs. 24 g soy protein. The second comparison matched serving size only: 1 serving of beef (24 g protein with 0 g fiber) vs. 1 serving of soy (14 g protein; 5 g fiber). For each treatment, the participants completed 2 testing days per lunch treatment. During the Appetite Assessment Days, each participant reported to the lab to consume one of the lunch meals. Pre and 7-h post-lunch appetite and cravings questionnaires were completed throughout each testing day along with plasma, hormonal responses, and plasma amino acid concentrations through repeated blood sampling. Ad libitum dinner energy intake was also measured. During the Reward Assessment Days, the participants reported to our facility to again consume one of the lunch meals. Pre and post-lunch neural responses to food stimuli, through functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), occurred followed by ad libitum consumption of a lunch dessert.
Interventions
OTHERMacronutrient and Fiber Matched BEEF
The participants will consume the macronutrient and fiber matched BEEF lunch on a single testing day. BEEF contained 33% protein, 43% CHO, and 24% fat; the BEEF meal contained 24 g of beef protein from 96% lean ground beef (Cargill, KS). Soy fiber (Nutritional Designs, NY) was added to the BEEF meal to match total final content between meals.The participants will consume the serving size matched BEEF lunch on a single testing day. BEEF contained 33% protein, 43% CHO, and 24% fat; the BEEF meal contained 24 g of beef protein from 96% lean ground beef patty (Cargill, KS).
OTHERMacronutrient and Fiber Matched SOY
The participants will consume the macronutrient and fiber matched SOY lunch on a single testing day. SOY contained 33% protein, 43% CHO, and 24% fat; the SOY meal contained 24 g of textured soy protein concentrate (Boca Foods, WI).
OTHERServing Size Matched BEEF
The participants will consume the serving size matched BEEF lunch on a single testing day. BEEF contained 33% protein, 43% CHO, and 24% fat; the BEEF meal contained 24 g of beef protein from 96% lean ground beef patty (Cargill, KS).
OTHERServing Size Matched SOY
The participants will consume the serving size matched SOY lunch on a single testing day. SOY contained 24% protein, 49% CHO, and 24% fat; the SOY meal contained 14 g of textured soy protein concentrate (Boca Foods, WI).
Sponsors
University of Missouri-Columbia
Study design
Allocation
RANDOMIZED
Intervention model
CROSSOVER
Primary purpose
OTHER
Masking
TRIPLE (Subject, Investigator, Outcomes Assessor)
Eligibility
Sex/Gender
ALL
Age
18 Years to 30 Years
Healthy volunteers
Yes
Inclusion criteria
* Age range 18-30 y * Normal to Overweight (BMI: 18-29.9 kg/m2) * No metabolic, psychological, or neurological diseases/conditions * Not currently/previously on a weight loss or other special diet (in the past 6 months) * Not a vegetarian * Right-handed (necessary for the fMRI analyses) * Not pregnant * Meets the MU-Brain Imaging Center Screening Criteria * Have not given blood (for the American Red Cross in the past 6 months)
Exclusion criteria
* Age \>30 y and \<18y * Under Weight or Obese (BMI: \<18 kg/m2 or \>29.9 kg/m2) * Clinically diagnosed with diabetes (Type I or Type II), having an eating disorder, or having any other metabolic, psychological, or neurological diseases/conditions that would influence the study outcomes. * Currently/previously on a weight loss or other special diet (in the past 6 months) * Left-handed * Claustrophobic (≥ 2 past bouts of claustrophobia when exposure to small spaces) * Do not meet the fMRI criteria established by the MU-BIC (regarding metal implants, etc.) * Pregnant * Does not meeting the MU-Brain Imaging Center screening criteria * Have given blood (for the American Red Cross) in the past 6 months or plan to give blood in the following 6 months
Design outcomes
Primary
| Measure | Time frame | Description |
|---|---|---|
| Eating Initiation | 1 Day | Eating initiation will be measured as the time lapse between consuming the intervention and requesting dinner. |
| Subsequent Food Intake | 1 Day | Ad libitum dinner and snacks were provided. Energy content and macronutrient content of these eating occasions were assessed. |
| Net Incremental Area Under the Curve (niAUC) of Perceived Hunger and Fullness | - 15 min, +0 min,+30 min, +60 min, +90 min, +120 min, +150 min, +180 min, +210 min, +240 min, +255 min, +270 min, +285 min, +300 min, +330 min, +360 min, +390 min, +420 min, +450 min, and +480 min | Computerized questionnaires, assessing perceived sensations of hunger and fullness were completed throughout the testing days. The questions are worded as how strong is your feeling of with anchors of not at all to extremely. Each reported score can be a minimum of 0 and a maximum of 100 mm. niAUC was calculated for by computing the summation of the average change from baseline score (units of mm) for each time point and the subsequent time point, multiplied by the difference in time (min) between the two measures. For reported feelings of hunger, a higher score can be interpreted as feeling more hungry. For fullness, higher can be interpreted as feeling more full. Questionnaires were asked at baseline and about every 30 minutes throughout the day for a total of 20 questionnaires. |
| Net Incremental Area Under the Curve (niAUC) of Plasma Total Glucagon-like Peptide (GLP-1) and Total Peptide YY (PYY) | - 15 min, +0 min,+30 min, +60 min, +90 min, +120 min, +150 min, +180 min, +210 min, +240 min, +255 min, +270 min, +285 min, +300 min, +330 min, +360 min, +390 min, +420 min, +450 min, and +480 min | The samples were collected in test tubes containing ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid. Protease inhibitors (pefabloc SC and dipeptidyl peptidase) were added to some of the tubes to reduce protein degradation. The plasma was separated and stored at -80°C. Plasma total glucagon-like peptide (GLP-1) and peptide YY (PYY) were measured for all time points using the Milliplex multi-analyte profiling magnetic bead-based multi-analyte, metabolic panel, 2-plex assay and Magpix Luminex technologies. niAUC was calculated throughout the testing period by computing the summation of the average change from baseline score (units of pg/ml) for each time point and the subsequent time point, multiplied by the difference in time (units of min) between the two time instances for a total of 20 blood samples. |
| Food Cue-stimulate fMRI Brain Scans | 3 hours | Participants viewed 3 categories of pictures including food, nonfood (animals), and blurred baseline images. The pictures from each category were presented in blocks of images. Animal pictures were used to control for visual richness and general interest (i.e., appealing but not appetizing). To determine the effects of protein type on neural activity associated with food motivation, repeated measures ANOVAs were performed on the brain activation maps within the Brain Voyager software with use of stimulus \[food (i.e., appetizing and appealing) vs. nonfood (i.e., animal, nonappetizing but appealing\] and protein source (BEEF vs. SOY) comparisons within the macronutrient and fiber-matched condition and the serving size-matched conditions, separately. The mean percent signal change in the maximum voxel within each region that displayed significant activation after the BEEF and SOY meals was then determined. Talairach coordinates for each region are presented for each row as (x;y;z). |
Secondary
| Measure | Time frame | Description |
|---|---|---|
| Plasma Amino Acids | - 15 min, +0 min,+30 min, +60 min, +90 min, +120 min, +150 min, +180 min, +210 min, +240 min, +255 min, +270 min, +285 min, +300 min, +330 min, +360 min, +390 min, +420 min, +450 min, and +480 min | Plasma amino acid concentrations were measured from the pre and hourly postprandial time points until dinner request following the Macronutrient and Fiber Matched BEEF meal and the Serving Size Matched Beef Meal. An average amino acid concentration was then determined from the change from baseline concentration for all available time points. Plasma amino acid analyses were performed through the University of Missouri-Columbia Agricultural Experiment Station Chemical Laboratories using cation-exchange chromatography (cIEC-HPLC) coupled with post-column ninhydrin derivatization and quantitation. |
Countries
United States
Participant flow
Participants by arm
| Arm | Count |
|---|---|
| All Study Participants All 21 participants completed all interventions of a randomized cross-over study to compare 400-kcal lunch meals varying in protein quality but matched for either macronutrient or fiber content or serving size. In the macronutrient and fiber-matched comparisons, both lunch meals contained 24-g protein and 2-g fiber, differing only in the type of protein consumed (beef vs. soy). In the serving size-matched comparisons, the lunch meals contained 1 serving of beef (24-g protein/1-g fiber) or 1 serving of soy (14-g protein/5-g fiber). The participants completed 2 testing days per lunch treatment. On the first day, participants completed the 8 hour testing day with repeated blood sampling and appetite questionnaires. During the second testing day, pre- and post-lunch food cue-stimulated fMRI brain scans were completed. Within each treatment, the first and second testing days were separated by 2-7 days. However, there was 7-14 days in between each treatment. | 21 |
| Total | 21 |
Baseline characteristics
| Characteristic | All Study Participants |
|---|---|
| Age, Categorical <=18 years | 0 Participants |
| Age, Categorical >=65 years | 0 Participants |
| Age, Categorical Between 18 and 65 years | 21 Participants |
| Age, Continuous | 23 years STANDARD_DEVIATION 1 |
| Region of Enrollment United States | 21 Participants |
| Sex: Female, Male Female | 10 Participants |
| Sex: Female, Male Male | 11 Participants |
Adverse events
| Event type | EG000 affected / at risk | EG001 affected / at risk | EG002 affected / at risk | EG003 affected / at risk |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| deaths Total, all-cause mortality | — / — | — / — | — / — | — / — |
| other Total, other adverse events | 0 / 20 | 0 / 20 | 0 / 20 | 0 / 20 |
| serious Total, serious adverse events | 0 / 20 | 0 / 20 | 0 / 20 | 0 / 20 |
Outcome results
Primary
Eating Initiation
Eating initiation will be measured as the time lapse between consuming the intervention and requesting dinner.
Time frame: 1 Day
| Arm | Measure | Value (MEAN) | Dispersion |
|---|---|---|---|
| Macronutrient and Fiber Matched Beef | Eating Initiation | 250 minutes | Standard Error 15 |
| Macronutrient and Fiber Matched Soy | Eating Initiation | 270 minutes | Standard Error 20 |
| Serving Size Matched Beef | Eating Initiation | 245 minutes | Standard Error 25 |
| Serving Size Matched Soy | Eating Initiation | 250 minutes | Standard Error 20 |
Primary
Food Cue-stimulate fMRI Brain Scans
Participants viewed 3 categories of pictures including food, nonfood (animals), and blurred baseline images. The pictures from each category were presented in blocks of images. Animal pictures were used to control for visual richness and general interest (i.e., appealing but not appetizing). To determine the effects of protein type on neural activity associated with food motivation, repeated measures ANOVAs were performed on the brain activation maps within the Brain Voyager software with use of stimulus \[food (i.e., appetizing and appealing) vs. nonfood (i.e., animal, nonappetizing but appealing\] and protein source (BEEF vs. SOY) comparisons within the macronutrient and fiber-matched condition and the serving size-matched conditions, separately. The mean percent signal change in the maximum voxel within each region that displayed significant activation after the BEEF and SOY meals was then determined. Talairach coordinates for each region are presented for each row as (x;y;z).
Time frame: 3 hours
| Arm | Measure | Group | Value (MEAN) | Dispersion |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Macronutrient and Fiber Matched Beef | Food Cue-stimulate fMRI Brain Scans | Post-Pre lunch Anterior Cingluate (2;25;0) | -22 percent signal change | Standard Error 6 |
| Macronutrient and Fiber Matched Beef | Food Cue-stimulate fMRI Brain Scans | Post-Pre lunch Insula (-40;10;-8) | -30 percent signal change | Standard Error 6 |
| Macronutrient and Fiber Matched Soy | Food Cue-stimulate fMRI Brain Scans | Post-Pre lunch Insula (-40;10;-8) | -7 percent signal change | Standard Error 10 |
| Macronutrient and Fiber Matched Soy | Food Cue-stimulate fMRI Brain Scans | Post-Pre lunch Anterior Cingluate (2;25;0) | 7 percent signal change | Standard Error 9 |
Primary
Net Incremental Area Under the Curve (niAUC) of Perceived Hunger and Fullness
Computerized questionnaires, assessing perceived sensations of hunger and fullness were completed throughout the testing days. The questions are worded as how strong is your feeling of with anchors of not at all to extremely. Each reported score can be a minimum of 0 and a maximum of 100 mm. niAUC was calculated for by computing the summation of the average change from baseline score (units of mm) for each time point and the subsequent time point, multiplied by the difference in time (min) between the two measures. For reported feelings of hunger, a higher score can be interpreted as feeling more hungry. For fullness, higher can be interpreted as feeling more full. Questionnaires were asked at baseline and about every 30 minutes throughout the day for a total of 20 questionnaires.
Time frame: - 15 min, +0 min,+30 min, +60 min, +90 min, +120 min, +150 min, +180 min, +210 min, +240 min, +255 min, +270 min, +285 min, +300 min, +330 min, +360 min, +390 min, +420 min, +450 min, and +480 min
| Arm | Measure | Group | Value (MEAN) | Dispersion |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Macronutrient and Fiber Matched Beef | Net Incremental Area Under the Curve (niAUC) of Perceived Hunger and Fullness | How strong is your feeling of hunger? | 45 mm*min | Standard Error 1000 |
| Macronutrient and Fiber Matched Beef | Net Incremental Area Under the Curve (niAUC) of Perceived Hunger and Fullness | How strong is your feeling of being full? | 2440 mm*min | Standard Error 1360 |
| Macronutrient and Fiber Matched Soy | Net Incremental Area Under the Curve (niAUC) of Perceived Hunger and Fullness | How strong is your feeling of being full? | 3320 mm*min | Standard Error 1600 |
| Macronutrient and Fiber Matched Soy | Net Incremental Area Under the Curve (niAUC) of Perceived Hunger and Fullness | How strong is your feeling of hunger? | -2840 mm*min | Standard Error 1650 |
| Serving Size Matched Beef | Net Incremental Area Under the Curve (niAUC) of Perceived Hunger and Fullness | How strong is your feeling of being full? | 2270 mm*min | Standard Error 1220 |
| Serving Size Matched Beef | Net Incremental Area Under the Curve (niAUC) of Perceived Hunger and Fullness | How strong is your feeling of hunger? | -1360 mm*min | Standard Error 1410 |
| Serving Size Matched Soy | Net Incremental Area Under the Curve (niAUC) of Perceived Hunger and Fullness | How strong is your feeling of being full? | 1910 mm*min | Standard Error 1560 |
| Serving Size Matched Soy | Net Incremental Area Under the Curve (niAUC) of Perceived Hunger and Fullness | How strong is your feeling of hunger? | 745 mm*min | Standard Error 1480 |
Primary
Net Incremental Area Under the Curve (niAUC) of Plasma Total Glucagon-like Peptide (GLP-1) and Total Peptide YY (PYY)
The samples were collected in test tubes containing ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid. Protease inhibitors (pefabloc SC and dipeptidyl peptidase) were added to some of the tubes to reduce protein degradation. The plasma was separated and stored at -80°C. Plasma total glucagon-like peptide (GLP-1) and peptide YY (PYY) were measured for all time points using the Milliplex multi-analyte profiling magnetic bead-based multi-analyte, metabolic panel, 2-plex assay and Magpix Luminex technologies. niAUC was calculated throughout the testing period by computing the summation of the average change from baseline score (units of pg/ml) for each time point and the subsequent time point, multiplied by the difference in time (units of min) between the two time instances for a total of 20 blood samples.
Time frame: - 15 min, +0 min,+30 min, +60 min, +90 min, +120 min, +150 min, +180 min, +210 min, +240 min, +255 min, +270 min, +285 min, +300 min, +330 min, +360 min, +390 min, +420 min, +450 min, and +480 min
| Arm | Measure | Group | Value (MEAN) | Dispersion |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Macronutrient and Fiber Matched Beef | Net Incremental Area Under the Curve (niAUC) of Plasma Total Glucagon-like Peptide (GLP-1) and Total Peptide YY (PYY) | GLP-1 | 4100 (pg*min)/ml | Standard Error 811 |
| Macronutrient and Fiber Matched Beef | Net Incremental Area Under the Curve (niAUC) of Plasma Total Glucagon-like Peptide (GLP-1) and Total Peptide YY (PYY) | PYY | 1590 (pg*min)/ml | Standard Error 944 |
| Macronutrient and Fiber Matched Soy | Net Incremental Area Under the Curve (niAUC) of Plasma Total Glucagon-like Peptide (GLP-1) and Total Peptide YY (PYY) | PYY | 1330 (pg*min)/ml | Standard Error 1710 |
| Macronutrient and Fiber Matched Soy | Net Incremental Area Under the Curve (niAUC) of Plasma Total Glucagon-like Peptide (GLP-1) and Total Peptide YY (PYY) | GLP-1 | 2790 (pg*min)/ml | Standard Error 1450 |
| Serving Size Matched Beef | Net Incremental Area Under the Curve (niAUC) of Plasma Total Glucagon-like Peptide (GLP-1) and Total Peptide YY (PYY) | GLP-1 | 2120 (pg*min)/ml | Standard Error 916 |
| Serving Size Matched Beef | Net Incremental Area Under the Curve (niAUC) of Plasma Total Glucagon-like Peptide (GLP-1) and Total Peptide YY (PYY) | PYY | 1980 (pg*min)/ml | Standard Error 1720 |
| Serving Size Matched Soy | Net Incremental Area Under the Curve (niAUC) of Plasma Total Glucagon-like Peptide (GLP-1) and Total Peptide YY (PYY) | PYY | 1720 (pg*min)/ml | Standard Error 6430 |
| Serving Size Matched Soy | Net Incremental Area Under the Curve (niAUC) of Plasma Total Glucagon-like Peptide (GLP-1) and Total Peptide YY (PYY) | GLP-1 | 4870 (pg*min)/ml | Standard Error 1200 |
Primary
Subsequent Food Intake
Ad libitum dinner and snacks were provided. Energy content and macronutrient content of these eating occasions were assessed.
Time frame: 1 Day
| Arm | Measure | Value (MEAN) | Dispersion |
|---|---|---|---|
| Macronutrient and Fiber Matched Beef | Subsequent Food Intake | 240 kilocalories | Standard Error 74 |
| Macronutrient and Fiber Matched Soy | Subsequent Food Intake | 970 kilocalories | Standard Error 82 |
| Serving Size Matched Beef | Subsequent Food Intake | 920 kilocalories | Standard Error 75 |
| Serving Size Matched Soy | Subsequent Food Intake | 900 kilocalories | Standard Error 72 |
Secondary
Plasma Amino Acids
Plasma amino acid concentrations were measured from the pre and hourly postprandial time points until dinner request following the Macronutrient and Fiber Matched BEEF meal and the Serving Size Matched Beef Meal. An average amino acid concentration was then determined from the change from baseline concentration for all available time points. Plasma amino acid analyses were performed through the University of Missouri-Columbia Agricultural Experiment Station Chemical Laboratories using cation-exchange chromatography (cIEC-HPLC) coupled with post-column ninhydrin derivatization and quantitation.
Time frame: - 15 min, +0 min,+30 min, +60 min, +90 min, +120 min, +150 min, +180 min, +210 min, +240 min, +255 min, +270 min, +285 min, +300 min, +330 min, +360 min, +390 min, +420 min, +450 min, and +480 min
Population: Four participants were excluded because of insufficient time points.
| Arm | Measure | Group | Value (MEAN) | Dispersion |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Macronutrient and Fiber Matched Beef | Plasma Amino Acids | Taurine | 0.24 pg/ml | Standard Error 0.18 |
| Macronutrient and Fiber Matched Beef | Plasma Amino Acids | Valine | 4.01 pg/ml | Standard Error 1.09 |
| Macronutrient and Fiber Matched Beef | Plasma Amino Acids | Methionine | 0.64 pg/ml | Standard Error 0.22 |
| Macronutrient and Fiber Matched Beef | Plasma Amino Acids | Isolecuine | 2.51 pg/ml | Standard Error 0.6 |
| Macronutrient and Fiber Matched Beef | Plasma Amino Acids | Phenylalanine | 0.40 pg/ml | Standard Error 0.34 |
| Macronutrient and Fiber Matched Beef | Plasma Amino Acids | Tryptophan | 4.78 pg/ml | Standard Error 0.41 |
| Macronutrient and Fiber Matched Beef | Plasma Amino Acids | Lysine | 5.02 pg/ml | Standard Error 1.26 |
| Macronutrient and Fiber Matched Beef | Plasma Amino Acids | Tryptophan/Large Neutral Amino Acids | 0.020 pg/ml | Standard Error 0.004 |
| Macronutrient and Fiber Matched Beef | Plasma Amino Acids | Total Amino Acids | 29.13 pg/ml | Standard Error 10.9 |
| Macronutrient and Fiber Matched Beef | Plasma Amino Acids | Leucine | 4.68 pg/ml | Standard Error 1.06 |
| Macronutrient and Fiber Matched Beef | Plasma Amino Acids | Tyrosine | 1.49 pg/ml | Standard Error 0.57 |
| Macronutrient and Fiber Matched Beef | Plasma Amino Acids | Histidine | 1.41 pg/ml | Standard Error 0.44 |
| Macronutrient and Fiber Matched Soy | Plasma Amino Acids | Methionine | 0.04 pg/ml | Standard Error 0.18 |
| Macronutrient and Fiber Matched Soy | Plasma Amino Acids | Taurine | -0.78 pg/ml | Standard Error 0.25 |
| Macronutrient and Fiber Matched Soy | Plasma Amino Acids | Lysine | 0.33 pg/ml | Standard Error 1.07 |
| Macronutrient and Fiber Matched Soy | Plasma Amino Acids | Valine | 0.03 pg/ml | Standard Error 0.86 |
| Macronutrient and Fiber Matched Soy | Plasma Amino Acids | Histidine | -0.29 pg/ml | Standard Error 0.33 |
| Macronutrient and Fiber Matched Soy | Plasma Amino Acids | Tryptophan/Large Neutral Amino Acids | 0.019 pg/ml | Standard Error 0.005 |
| Macronutrient and Fiber Matched Soy | Plasma Amino Acids | Isolecuine | 1.04 pg/ml | Standard Error 0.38 |
| Macronutrient and Fiber Matched Soy | Plasma Amino Acids | Tyrosine | 0.12 pg/ml | Standard Error 0.35 |
| Macronutrient and Fiber Matched Soy | Plasma Amino Acids | Leucine | 1.61 pg/ml | Standard Error 0.65 |
| Macronutrient and Fiber Matched Soy | Plasma Amino Acids | Phenylalanine | -0.13 pg/ml | Standard Error 0.33 |
| Macronutrient and Fiber Matched Soy | Plasma Amino Acids | Total Amino Acids | -6.35 pg/ml | Standard Error 8.63 |
| Macronutrient and Fiber Matched Soy | Plasma Amino Acids | Tryptophan | 2.65 pg/ml | Standard Error 0.51 |