Lower Extremity Pain of a Mechanical Origin
Conditions
Keywords
Orthoses, Foot, Kinematics, EMG, Biomechanics
Brief summary
The purpose of this study was to determine the effectiveness of two types of in-shoe custom made orthotics in altering the motion of the foot and muscle activity of select muscles of the lower leg in individuals experiencing lower extremity symptoms of a non traumatic origin. We hypothesized that orthotics would decrease the extent of motion of the during walking and running when compared to a barefoot condition. The investigators further hypothesized that orthotics would decrease the amount of muscle activity seen during walking and running when compared to barefoot walking.
Interventions
DEVICEMaximal Arch Subtalar Stabilization
Custom made semi-rigid thermoplastic heel cup extending to the base of the metatarsals with a full foot length 3.0mm thick EVA and ultra-suede top cover
DEVICEFull Contact Orthosis
The Full Contact orthosis is constructed from a 5/32 blue polypropylene with posting material comprised of white polypropylene.
Sponsors
Sole Supports, Inc
Quinnipiac University
Study design
Allocation
RANDOMIZED
Intervention model
PARALLEL
Primary purpose
BASIC_SCIENCE
Masking
NONE
Eligibility
Sex/Gender
ALL
Age
18 Years to 60 Years
Healthy volunteers
Yes
Inclusion criteria
* Subjects must have complaints of lower extremity or foot pain of a non-traumatic, mechanical origin. * Subjects must have at least 60 degrees of frontal plane forefoot on rearfoot passive range of motion (as determined by a modified Gib test in the symptomatic lower extremity. * Subjects must be able to walk independently on a treadmill at a speed of 4.8 kmh. * Subjects must have been referred by a health care professional for an orthosis fitting.
Exclusion criteria
* Subjects having less than 60 degrees of forefoot on rearfoot frontal plane passive range of motion. * Subjects having a history of a fracture of the foot or ankle. * Subjects having any previous illness, surgery or other characteristic (e.g., cardiovascular, musculoskeletal or neuromuscular problems) that would affect their lower extremity function or ability to walk independently. * Subjects having knee, lower leg or foot pain of a non-mechanical nature.
Design outcomes
Primary
| Measure | Time frame | Description |
|---|---|---|
| Maximum Rearfoot Eversion Motion During Stance | Absolute values measured at 5 weeks | The rearfoot eversion motion during the stance phase of walking with the subject wearing a sandal and their assigned orthotic (Full Contact or Maximal Arch Subtalar Stabilization) was recorded 5 weeks post receiving their assigned orthotic. The stance phase of walking was divided into 4 subphases (Phase 1: 0 to 17%, Phase 2: 18 to 50%, Phase 3: 51 to 83%, and Phase 3: 84 to 100% of stance) and the maximum rearfoot eversion during each subphase determined. |
Secondary
| Measure | Time frame | Description |
|---|---|---|
| Maximum Electromyographic Activity of Lower Leg Muscles | Absolute values measured at 5 weeks | The maximum electromyographic activity of the lower leg muscles is with respect to the barefoot condition. The electromyographic activity of the lower extremity muscles were recorded during the stance phase of walking while barefoot and while wearing their assigned orthotic (Full Contact or Maximal Arch Subtalar Stabilization). All electromyographic measurements were taken at the 5 week time point. The peak electromyographic activity during the stance phase of barefoot walking was determined. The electromyographic activity during the orthotic condition was amplitude normalized to the barefoot condition by dividing the electromyographic activity of the orthotic condition by the peak barefoot electromyographic activity and multiplying by 100. The stance phase of walking was then divided into 4 subphases (Phase 1: 0 to 17%, Phase 2: 18 to 50%, Phase 3: 51 to 83%, and Phase 3: 84 to 100% of stance) and the peak amplitude normalized electromyographic activity of each subphase det |
| Maximum Forefoot Inversion During Stance | Absolute values measured at 5 weeks | The forefoot inversion motion during the stance phase of walking with the subject wearing a sandal and their assigned orthotic (Full Contact or Maximal Arch Subtalar Stabilization) was recorded 5 weeks post receiving their assigned orthotic. The stance phase of walking was divided into 4 subphases (Phase 1: 0 to 17%, Phase 2: 18 to 50%, Phase 3: 51 to 83%, and Phase 3: 84 to 100% of stance) and the maximum forefoot inversion during each subphase determined. |
| Maximum First Ray Complex Plantarflexion During Stance | Absolute values measured at 5 weeks | The first ray complex plantarflexion during the stance phase of walking with the subject wearing a sandal and their assigned orthotic (Full Contact or Maximal Arch Subtalar Stabilization) was recorded 5 weeks post receiving their assigned orthotic. The stance phase of walking was divided into 4 subphases (Phase 1: 0 to 17%, Phase 2: 18 to 50%, Phase 3: 51 to 83%, and Phase 3: 84 to 100% of stance) and the maximum first ray complex plantarflexion during each subphase determined. |
Countries
United States
Participant flow
Recruitment details
A convenience sample of subjects was obtained via email and bulletin board postings at a local private university. Recruitment commenced 9/1/08 and ended on 2/1/09.
Pre-assignment details
There were no significant events associated with this study.
Participants by arm
| Arm | Count |
|---|---|
| Full Contact Orthosis Full Contact Orthosis
Full Contact Orthosis: The Full Contact orthosis is constructed from a 5/32 blue polypropylene with posting material comprised of white polypropylene. | 36 |
| Maximal Arch Subtalar Stabilization Maximal Arch Subtalar Stabilization Orthoses
Maximal Arch Subtalar Stabilization: Custom made semi-rigid thermoplastic heel cup extending to the base of the metatarsals with a full foot length 3.0mm thick EVA and ultra-suede top cover | 44 |
| Total | 80 |
Withdrawals & dropouts
| Period | Reason | FG000 | FG001 |
|---|---|---|---|
| Overall Study | Lost to Follow-up | 4 | 2 |
Baseline characteristics
| Characteristic | Full Contact Orthosis | Total | Maximal Arch Subtalar Stabilization |
|---|---|---|---|
| Age, Categorical <=18 years | 7 Participants | 11 Participants | 4 Participants |
| Age, Categorical >=65 years | 0 Participants | 0 Participants | 0 Participants |
| Age, Categorical Between 18 and 65 years | 29 Participants | 69 Participants | 40 Participants |
| Age, Continuous | 21.7 Years STANDARD_DEVIATION 6.6 | 20.9 Years STANDARD_DEVIATION 4.6 | 20.3 Years STANDARD_DEVIATION 1.5 |
| Race (NIH/OMB) American Indian or Alaska Native | 0 Participants | 0 Participants | 0 Participants |
| Race (NIH/OMB) Asian | 0 Participants | 0 Participants | 0 Participants |
| Race (NIH/OMB) Black or African American | 0 Participants | 0 Participants | 0 Participants |
| Race (NIH/OMB) More than one race | 0 Participants | 0 Participants | 0 Participants |
| Race (NIH/OMB) Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander | 0 Participants | 0 Participants | 0 Participants |
| Race (NIH/OMB) Unknown or Not Reported | 36 Participants | 80 Participants | 44 Participants |
| Race (NIH/OMB) White | 0 Participants | 0 Participants | 0 Participants |
| Region of Enrollment United States | 36 participants | 80 participants | 44 participants |
| Sex: Female, Male Female | 25 Participants | 57 Participants | 32 Participants |
| Sex: Female, Male Male | 11 Participants | 23 Participants | 12 Participants |
| Visual Analogue Pain Scale | 7.2 units on a scale STANDARD_DEVIATION 1.7 | 7.0 units on a scale STANDARD_DEVIATION 1.8 | 7.0 units on a scale STANDARD_DEVIATION 2 |
Adverse events
| Event type | EG000 affected / at risk | EG001 affected / at risk |
|---|---|---|
| deaths Total, all-cause mortality | — / — | — / — |
| other Total, other adverse events | 0 / 36 | 0 / 44 |
| serious Total, serious adverse events | 0 / 36 | 0 / 44 |
Outcome results
Primary
Maximum Rearfoot Eversion Motion During Stance
The rearfoot eversion motion during the stance phase of walking with the subject wearing a sandal and their assigned orthotic (Full Contact or Maximal Arch Subtalar Stabilization) was recorded 5 weeks post receiving their assigned orthotic. The stance phase of walking was divided into 4 subphases (Phase 1: 0 to 17%, Phase 2: 18 to 50%, Phase 3: 51 to 83%, and Phase 3: 84 to 100% of stance) and the maximum rearfoot eversion during each subphase determined.
Time frame: Absolute values measured at 5 weeks
Population: The number of participants used for the analysis was based upon the availability of complete data sets.
| Arm | Measure | Group | Value (MEAN) | Dispersion |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Full Contact Orthosis | Maximum Rearfoot Eversion Motion During Stance | Sandal Only, Phase 3 | 2.2 Degrees | Standard Deviation 9.2 |
| Full Contact Orthosis | Maximum Rearfoot Eversion Motion During Stance | Sandal-Orthotic Only, Phase 3 | 1.3 Degrees | Standard Deviation 9.2 |
| Full Contact Orthosis | Maximum Rearfoot Eversion Motion During Stance | Sandal Only, Phase 4 | -2.4 Degrees | Standard Deviation 7.5 |
| Full Contact Orthosis | Maximum Rearfoot Eversion Motion During Stance | Sandal Only, Phase 1 | 1.1 Degrees | Standard Deviation 9.9 |
| Full Contact Orthosis | Maximum Rearfoot Eversion Motion During Stance | Sandal-Orthotic Only, Phase 1 | 0.2 Degrees | Standard Deviation 9.9 |
| Full Contact Orthosis | Maximum Rearfoot Eversion Motion During Stance | Sandal Only, Phase 2 | 2.9 Degrees | Standard Deviation 10 |
| Full Contact Orthosis | Maximum Rearfoot Eversion Motion During Stance | Sandal-Orthotic Only, Phase 2 | 1.3 Degrees | Standard Deviation 9.6 |
| Full Contact Orthosis | Maximum Rearfoot Eversion Motion During Stance | Sandal-Orthotic Only, Phase 4 | -2.7 Degrees | Standard Deviation 8.1 |
| Maximal Arch Subtalar Stabilization | Maximum Rearfoot Eversion Motion During Stance | Sandal-Orthotic Only, Phase 2 | 3.1 Degrees | Standard Deviation 10.5 |
| Maximal Arch Subtalar Stabilization | Maximum Rearfoot Eversion Motion During Stance | Sandal-Orthotic Only, Phase 3 | 2.7 Degrees | Standard Deviation 9.9 |
| Maximal Arch Subtalar Stabilization | Maximum Rearfoot Eversion Motion During Stance | Sandal-Orthotic Only, Phase 4 | -0.9 Degrees | Standard Deviation 9.2 |
| Maximal Arch Subtalar Stabilization | Maximum Rearfoot Eversion Motion During Stance | Sandal Only, Phase 2 | 3.0 Degrees | Standard Deviation 10.3 |
| Maximal Arch Subtalar Stabilization | Maximum Rearfoot Eversion Motion During Stance | Sandal Only, Phase 3 | 2.7 Degrees | Standard Deviation 9.2 |
| Maximal Arch Subtalar Stabilization | Maximum Rearfoot Eversion Motion During Stance | Sandal Only, Phase 4 | -1.1 Degrees | Standard Deviation 8.8 |
| Maximal Arch Subtalar Stabilization | Maximum Rearfoot Eversion Motion During Stance | Sandal-Orthotic Only, Phase 1 | 1.7 Degrees | Standard Deviation 11.5 |
| Maximal Arch Subtalar Stabilization | Maximum Rearfoot Eversion Motion During Stance | Sandal Only, Phase 1 | 1.1 Degrees | Standard Deviation 11.3 |
p-value: >0.1Mixed Models Analysis
Secondary
Maximum Electromyographic Activity of Lower Leg Muscles
The maximum electromyographic activity of the lower leg muscles is with respect to the barefoot condition. The electromyographic activity of the lower extremity muscles were recorded during the stance phase of walking while barefoot and while wearing their assigned orthotic (Full Contact or Maximal Arch Subtalar Stabilization). All electromyographic measurements were taken at the 5 week time point. The peak electromyographic activity during the stance phase of barefoot walking was determined. The electromyographic activity during the orthotic condition was amplitude normalized to the barefoot condition by dividing the electromyographic activity of the orthotic condition by the peak barefoot electromyographic activity and multiplying by 100. The stance phase of walking was then divided into 4 subphases (Phase 1: 0 to 17%, Phase 2: 18 to 50%, Phase 3: 51 to 83%, and Phase 3: 84 to 100% of stance) and the peak amplitude normalized electromyographic activity of each subphase det
Time frame: Absolute values measured at 5 weeks
Population: The number of participants used for the analysis was based upon the availability of complete data sets.
| Arm | Measure | Group | Value (MEAN) | Dispersion |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Full Contact Orthosis | Maximum Electromyographic Activity of Lower Leg Muscles | Peroneus Longus Phase 4 | 18.8 percentage of maximum electromyo actvity | Standard Deviation 18.6 |
| Full Contact Orthosis | Maximum Electromyographic Activity of Lower Leg Muscles | Tibialis Posterior Phase 2 | 35.1 percentage of maximum electromyo actvity | Standard Deviation 26.6 |
| Full Contact Orthosis | Maximum Electromyographic Activity of Lower Leg Muscles | Tibialis Anterior Phase 1 | 69.5 percentage of maximum electromyo actvity | Standard Deviation 24.8 |
| Full Contact Orthosis | Maximum Electromyographic Activity of Lower Leg Muscles | Tibialis Posterior Phase 3 | 49.4 percentage of maximum electromyo actvity | Standard Deviation 48.6 |
| Full Contact Orthosis | Maximum Electromyographic Activity of Lower Leg Muscles | Tibailis Anterior Phase 2 | 23.6 percentage of maximum electromyo actvity | Standard Deviation 14.1 |
| Full Contact Orthosis | Maximum Electromyographic Activity of Lower Leg Muscles | Tibialis Posterior Phase 4 | 27.4 percentage of maximum electromyo actvity | Standard Deviation 48.7 |
| Full Contact Orthosis | Maximum Electromyographic Activity of Lower Leg Muscles | Peroneus Longus Phase 1 | 41.5 percentage of maximum electromyo actvity | Standard Deviation 29.2 |
| Full Contact Orthosis | Maximum Electromyographic Activity of Lower Leg Muscles | Tibialis Anterior Phase 3 | 29.6 percentage of maximum electromyo actvity | Standard Deviation 14.9 |
| Full Contact Orthosis | Maximum Electromyographic Activity of Lower Leg Muscles | Peroneus Longus Phase 2 | 48.1 percentage of maximum electromyo actvity | Standard Deviation 33.5 |
| Full Contact Orthosis | Maximum Electromyographic Activity of Lower Leg Muscles | Peroneus Longus Phase 3 | 52.5 percentage of maximum electromyo actvity | Standard Deviation 35.1 |
| Full Contact Orthosis | Maximum Electromyographic Activity of Lower Leg Muscles | Tibialis Posterior Phase 1 | 45.5 percentage of maximum electromyo actvity | Standard Deviation 32.8 |
| Full Contact Orthosis | Maximum Electromyographic Activity of Lower Leg Muscles | Tibialis Anterior Phase 4 | 41.9 percentage of maximum electromyo actvity | Standard Deviation 14.4 |
| Maximal Arch Subtalar Stabilization | Maximum Electromyographic Activity of Lower Leg Muscles | Peroneus Longus Phase 4 | 25.8 percentage of maximum electromyo actvity | Standard Deviation 28.6 |
| Maximal Arch Subtalar Stabilization | Maximum Electromyographic Activity of Lower Leg Muscles | Tibialis Posterior Phase 1 | 50.2 percentage of maximum electromyo actvity | Standard Deviation 29.7 |
| Maximal Arch Subtalar Stabilization | Maximum Electromyographic Activity of Lower Leg Muscles | Peroneus Longus Phase 2 | 58.7 percentage of maximum electromyo actvity | Standard Deviation 37.5 |
| Maximal Arch Subtalar Stabilization | Maximum Electromyographic Activity of Lower Leg Muscles | Tibailis Anterior Phase 2 | 27.1 percentage of maximum electromyo actvity | Standard Deviation 23.6 |
| Maximal Arch Subtalar Stabilization | Maximum Electromyographic Activity of Lower Leg Muscles | Tibialis Anterior Phase 3 | 30.9 percentage of maximum electromyo actvity | Standard Deviation 19.7 |
| Maximal Arch Subtalar Stabilization | Maximum Electromyographic Activity of Lower Leg Muscles | Tibialis Anterior Phase 4 | 46.8 percentage of maximum electromyo actvity | Standard Deviation 16.7 |
| Maximal Arch Subtalar Stabilization | Maximum Electromyographic Activity of Lower Leg Muscles | Tibialis Posterior Phase 2 | 46.0 percentage of maximum electromyo actvity | Standard Deviation 28.4 |
| Maximal Arch Subtalar Stabilization | Maximum Electromyographic Activity of Lower Leg Muscles | Tibialis Posterior Phase 3 | 53.1 percentage of maximum electromyo actvity | Standard Deviation 35.2 |
| Maximal Arch Subtalar Stabilization | Maximum Electromyographic Activity of Lower Leg Muscles | Tibialis Posterior Phase 4 | 20.9 percentage of maximum electromyo actvity | Standard Deviation 19.6 |
| Maximal Arch Subtalar Stabilization | Maximum Electromyographic Activity of Lower Leg Muscles | Peroneus Longus Phase 1 | 40.8 percentage of maximum electromyo actvity | Standard Deviation 24.4 |
| Maximal Arch Subtalar Stabilization | Maximum Electromyographic Activity of Lower Leg Muscles | Peroneus Longus Phase 3 | 55.7 percentage of maximum electromyo actvity | Standard Deviation 36.9 |
| Maximal Arch Subtalar Stabilization | Maximum Electromyographic Activity of Lower Leg Muscles | Tibialis Anterior Phase 1 | 71.2 percentage of maximum electromyo actvity | Standard Deviation 21.9 |
p-value: =0.036Mixed Models Analysis
Secondary
Maximum First Ray Complex Plantarflexion During Stance
The first ray complex plantarflexion during the stance phase of walking with the subject wearing a sandal and their assigned orthotic (Full Contact or Maximal Arch Subtalar Stabilization) was recorded 5 weeks post receiving their assigned orthotic. The stance phase of walking was divided into 4 subphases (Phase 1: 0 to 17%, Phase 2: 18 to 50%, Phase 3: 51 to 83%, and Phase 3: 84 to 100% of stance) and the maximum first ray complex plantarflexion during each subphase determined.
Time frame: Absolute values measured at 5 weeks
Population: The number of participants used for the analysis was based upon the availability of complete data sets.
| Arm | Measure | Group | Value (MEAN) | Dispersion |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Full Contact Orthosis | Maximum First Ray Complex Plantarflexion During Stance | Sandal Only, Phase 1 | -6.96 Degrees | Standard Deviation 3.8 |
| Full Contact Orthosis | Maximum First Ray Complex Plantarflexion During Stance | Sandal Only, Phase 3 | -1.25 Degrees | Standard Deviation 2.9 |
| Full Contact Orthosis | Maximum First Ray Complex Plantarflexion During Stance | Sandal-Orthotic, Phase 2 | -2.92 Degrees | Standard Deviation 3.3 |
| Full Contact Orthosis | Maximum First Ray Complex Plantarflexion During Stance | Sandal Only, Phase 2 | -3.37 Degrees | Standard Deviation 3.3 |
| Full Contact Orthosis | Maximum First Ray Complex Plantarflexion During Stance | Sandal Only, Phase 4 | -4.07 Degrees | Standard Deviation 4.4 |
| Full Contact Orthosis | Maximum First Ray Complex Plantarflexion During Stance | Sandal-Orthotic, Phase 1 | -6.49 Degrees | Standard Deviation 3.8 |
| Full Contact Orthosis | Maximum First Ray Complex Plantarflexion During Stance | Sandal-Orthotic, Phase 3 | -1.03 Degrees | Standard Deviation 2.9 |
| Full Contact Orthosis | Maximum First Ray Complex Plantarflexion During Stance | Sandal-Orthotic, Phase 4 | -4.07 Degrees | Standard Deviation 4.4 |
| Maximal Arch Subtalar Stabilization | Maximum First Ray Complex Plantarflexion During Stance | Sandal-Orthotic, Phase 4 | -3.24 Degrees | Standard Deviation 5.4 |
| Maximal Arch Subtalar Stabilization | Maximum First Ray Complex Plantarflexion During Stance | Sandal Only, Phase 2 | -1.22 Degrees | Standard Deviation 4.8 |
| Maximal Arch Subtalar Stabilization | Maximum First Ray Complex Plantarflexion During Stance | Sandal Only, Phase 4 | -4.39 Degrees | Standard Deviation 6 |
| Maximal Arch Subtalar Stabilization | Maximum First Ray Complex Plantarflexion During Stance | Sandal-Orthotic, Phase 3 | .62 Degrees | Standard Deviation 4.4 |
| Maximal Arch Subtalar Stabilization | Maximum First Ray Complex Plantarflexion During Stance | Sandal-Orthotic, Phase 2 | -1.5 Degrees | Standard Deviation 4.2 |
| Maximal Arch Subtalar Stabilization | Maximum First Ray Complex Plantarflexion During Stance | Sandal Only, Phase 1 | -4.95 Degrees | Standard Deviation 5 |
| Maximal Arch Subtalar Stabilization | Maximum First Ray Complex Plantarflexion During Stance | Sandal-Orthotic, Phase 1 | -4.67 Degrees | Standard Deviation 4.4 |
| Maximal Arch Subtalar Stabilization | Maximum First Ray Complex Plantarflexion During Stance | Sandal Only, Phase 3 | 1.54 Degrees | Standard Deviation 5.3 |
p-value: <0.05Mixed Models Analysis
Secondary
Maximum Forefoot Inversion During Stance
The forefoot inversion motion during the stance phase of walking with the subject wearing a sandal and their assigned orthotic (Full Contact or Maximal Arch Subtalar Stabilization) was recorded 5 weeks post receiving their assigned orthotic. The stance phase of walking was divided into 4 subphases (Phase 1: 0 to 17%, Phase 2: 18 to 50%, Phase 3: 51 to 83%, and Phase 3: 84 to 100% of stance) and the maximum forefoot inversion during each subphase determined.
Time frame: Absolute values measured at 5 weeks
Population: The number of participants used for the analysis was based upon the availability of complete data sets.
| Arm | Measure | Group | Value (MEAN) | Dispersion |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Full Contact Orthosis | Maximum Forefoot Inversion During Stance | Sandal-Orthotic Only, Phase 2 | -11.4 Degrees | Standard Deviation 10.8 |
| Full Contact Orthosis | Maximum Forefoot Inversion During Stance | Sandal-Orthotic Only, Phase 3 | -12.6 Degrees | Standard Deviation 9.8 |
| Full Contact Orthosis | Maximum Forefoot Inversion During Stance | Sandal Only, Phase 1 | -13.0 Degrees | Standard Deviation 9.7 |
| Full Contact Orthosis | Maximum Forefoot Inversion During Stance | Sandal Only, Phase 2 | -12.2 Degrees | Standard Deviation 10.2 |
| Full Contact Orthosis | Maximum Forefoot Inversion During Stance | Sandal Only, Phase 3 | -12.7 Degrees | Standard Deviation 8.9 |
| Full Contact Orthosis | Maximum Forefoot Inversion During Stance | Sandal Only, Phase 4 | -12.7 Degrees | Standard Deviation 8.5 |
| Full Contact Orthosis | Maximum Forefoot Inversion During Stance | Sandal-Orthotic Only, Phase 1 | -12.0 Degrees | Standard Deviation 10.5 |
| Full Contact Orthosis | Maximum Forefoot Inversion During Stance | Sandal-Orthotic Only, Phase 4 | -11.9 Degrees | Standard Deviation 9.3 |
| Maximal Arch Subtalar Stabilization | Maximum Forefoot Inversion During Stance | Sandal Only, Phase 2 | -12.9 Degrees | Standard Deviation 11.8 |
| Maximal Arch Subtalar Stabilization | Maximum Forefoot Inversion During Stance | Sandal-Orthotic Only, Phase 2 | -13.6 Degrees | Standard Deviation 11.7 |
| Maximal Arch Subtalar Stabilization | Maximum Forefoot Inversion During Stance | Sandal Only, Phase 4 | -14.7 Degrees | Standard Deviation 10.9 |
| Maximal Arch Subtalar Stabilization | Maximum Forefoot Inversion During Stance | Sandal-Orthotic Only, Phase 3 | -14.0 Degrees | Standard Deviation 10.7 |
| Maximal Arch Subtalar Stabilization | Maximum Forefoot Inversion During Stance | Sandal-Orthotic Only, Phase 4 | -14.6 Degrees | Standard Deviation 11 |
| Maximal Arch Subtalar Stabilization | Maximum Forefoot Inversion During Stance | Sandal Only, Phase 3 | -14.0 Degrees | Standard Deviation 10.2 |
| Maximal Arch Subtalar Stabilization | Maximum Forefoot Inversion During Stance | Sandal Only, Phase 1 | -13.8 Degrees | Standard Deviation 12.2 |
| Maximal Arch Subtalar Stabilization | Maximum Forefoot Inversion During Stance | Sandal-Orthotic Only, Phase 1 | -14.2 Degrees | Standard Deviation 12 |
p-value: >0.1Mixed Models Analysis