Obesity
Conditions
Keywords
Obesity, Snacking, Appetite, Protein, Soy, Reward driven eating, Satiety
Brief summary
The purpose of this study is to examine the effects of normal vs. protein-rich afternoon snacks on appetite control, satiety, and reward-driven eating (particularly in the evening) in young people. Indices of attention and mood will also be assessed. Study hypotheses include the following: 1. The consumption of a high-protein, soy-rich afternoon snack will lead to significant improvements in appetite control and satiety, reductions in food motivation and reward, and will delay the drive to eat in normal to overweight young people. 2. The consumption of a high-protein, soy-rich afternoon snack will lead to reduced unhealthy, evening snacking, particularly on foods high in fat and/or sugar, in normal to overweight young people. 3. The daily consumption of a high-protein, soy-rich afternoon snack will lead to significant improvements in afternoon alertness, concentration, fatigue, and well-being in normal to overweight young people.
Detailed description
Forty adolescents will participate in the following randomized crossover-design study. Prior to the start of the study, the participants will be asked to document their habitual breakfast, lunch, and afternoon snack times. The snack patterns and associated testing days will be scheduled so that each participant consumes the afternoon snack (or refrains from snacking) 3 hours after lunch; however, the time of day when this occurs is based on the participant's previous, habitual snack time. Once this is determined, each participant will randomly acclimate to the following snack pattern for 3 consecutive days: 1) Higher Protein Soy-based Snacks (250 kcal; 40% Protein; 40% Carbohydrates; 20% Fat); 2) Typical, Low Protein Snacks (5% Protein; 50% Carbohydrates; 45% Fat); and 3) No Snack. On day 4, the participants will consume a standard breakfast, at home, and lunch, at school, and will come in to our facility 1 hour prior to their habitual snack time. The participants will be placed in a window-less, comfortable room, void of all time cues. They will be informed that they will remain in this room for the next 6 hours. The participants will begin the testing day by completing baseline questionnaires assessing appetite, satiety, mood, and cognitive function. A brain scan will be completed using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to identify brain activation patterns in response to food stimuli. Following the fMRI scan, the respective snack will be given to the participants; they will have 15 minutes to eat the snack. A second fMRI scan will then be performed. The participants will continue to complete the previous questionnaires until they voluntarily choose to eat. At this time, the volunteers will be presented with an 'all you can eat' snack buffet. They will be permitted to eat as much or as little as they would like to eat over the next 3-hour period. The participants will remain in the facility until the full 8-hour testing day is completed, regardless of when they requested to eat. Following the 6 hours, the participants will be permitted to leave the facility.
Interventions
BEHAVIORALHigh Protein
250 kcal; 40% Protein; 40% Carbohydrate; 20% Fat
BEHAVIORALLow Protein
5% Protein; 50% Carbohydrates; 45% Fat
Sponsors
Solae, LLC
University of Missouri-Columbia
Study design
Allocation
RANDOMIZED
Intervention model
CROSSOVER
Primary purpose
TREATMENT
Masking
TRIPLE (Subject, Investigator, Outcomes Assessor)
Eligibility
Sex/Gender
ALL
Age
13 Years to 19 Years
Healthy volunteers
Yes
Inclusion criteria
* Age range 13-19 years * Normal to overweight (BMI: 50-85th percentile for BMI for age or BMI: 18-29.9 kg/m2) * No metabolic, psychological, or neurological diseases/conditions * Not currently or previously on a weight loss or other special diet (in the past 6 months) * Not clinically diagnosed with an eating disorder * Habitually eat (i.e., at least 5 times/week) breakfast between 7:00-9:00 am, lunch between 11:00 am-1:00 pm, an afternoon snack between 2:00-4:00 pm, and dinner * No food allergies or intolerances to soy products * Rates the overall liking of the study snack foods higher than Neither Like nor Dislike on the screening palatability questionnaire * Right handed
Exclusion criteria
* Age 12 years or younger, or 20 years or older * Underweight or Obese (below 50th or above 85th percentile for BMI for age, or BMI below 18 or above 29.9 kg/m2) * Any metabolic, psychological, or neurological diseases/conditions * Currently or previously on a weight loss or other special diet (in the past 6 months) * Clinically diagnosed with an eating disorder * Does not habitually eat (i.e., at least 5 times/week) breakfast between 7:00-9:00 am, lunch between 11:00 am-1:00 pm, an afternoon snack between 2:00-4:00 pm, and dinner * Food allergies or intolerances to soy products * Does not rate the overall liking of the study snack foods higher than Neither Like nor Dislike on the screening palatability questionnaire * Not right handed
Design outcomes
Primary
| Measure | Time frame | Description |
|---|---|---|
| Time to Dinner Request | 1 Day | The participants will be asked whether they would like to request a dinner buffet throughout the 5 h post-snack period. When the response is Yes, I want to eat right now, the time from snack consumption will be recorded. |
Secondary
| Measure | Time frame | Description |
|---|---|---|
| Appetite Questionnaires | 0 min, + 30 min, +60 min, +90 min, +120 min, +150 min, +180 min, +210 min, +240 min, +270 min, +300 min | Computerized questionnaires, assessing perceived sensations of appetite will be completed throughout the testing days. The questionnaires contain visual analog scales incorporating a 100 mm horizontal line rating scale for each response. The questions are worded as how strong is your feeling of with anchors of not all (scored as 0 out of 100) to extremely (scored as 100 out of 100). The following questions will be incorporated as 1 composite score ((Questions 1 + 3 + 4 - 2)/4) multiplied by the 300 minutes (a max of 30,000 mm\*min and a minimum of -30,000 mm\*min): 1. How strong is your feeling of hunger? 2. How strong is your feeling of being full? 3. How strong is your desire to eat? 4. How much food could you consume right now? The Adaptive Visual Analog Scale Software (Neurobehavioral Research Laboratory and Clinic; San Antonio, TX) was used for these assessments. |
| Snack Palatability and Perception Questionnaires | 5 min | Computerized questionnaires, assessing snack palatability and perceptions of the snack will be completed during screening and after the first and last bite of each snack during the acclimation and testing days. The questionnaires contain visual analog scales incorporating a 100 mm horizontal line rating scale for each response. The questions are worded as how strong is your feeling of with anchors of not all (scores 0 out of 100) to extremely (scores 100 out of 100). The questions assess snack appearance, smell, flavor, texture (feel), liking. The Adaptive Visual Analog Scale Software (Neurobehavioral Research Laboratory and Clinic; San Antonio, TX) was used for these assessments. |
| Attention & Memory Questionnaires | 90 min | Cognitive function will be assessed immediately before (-30 min) and 60 min post-snack using the lap-top based Cantab® computerized assessment system. This program consisted of a core battery of tests grouped into main categories including 1) Working Memory; 2) Reasoning; 3) Executive Function; 4) Reaction Time; 5) Sustained Attention; 6) Cognitive Flexibility; and 7) Processing Speed. This program has been used in our previous breakfast studies with success. A greater raw score for working memory, reasoning, executive function, sustained attention, and cognitive flexibility is considered to be greater performance. A lower score for reaction time and processing speed is considered to be greater performance. The raw scores are determined by Cantab® computerized assessment system. Therefore, maximum and minimum values for each test are unknown. |
| Mood-state Questionnaires | -30 min, +60 min | Indices of mood state will be assessed immediately before and 60 min post-snack using the on-line, Profile of Mood States, 2nd Edition (POMS2). This program consisted of a core battery of tests with the following sub-categories 1) Tension; 2) Depression; 3) Anger; 4) Vigor; 5) Fatigue; 6) Confusion; and 7) Friendliness. Outcomes are scored as a T-score which could be a minimum of zero with no upper limit. A lower score represents a more positive mood state and a higher score represents a more negative mood state. |
| Energy Intake | +300 min, 24 h | Post-snack energy intake will be assessed through ad libitum dinner and snacking assessments. The ad libitum dinner will contain approximately 2,000 kcal and will consist of a chicken, rice, and stir-fry meal, chips, chocolate mints, ice tea, and water. The dinner meal will be consumed in the testing facility. The participants will be instructed to eat as much as or as little as they choose over a 30 min period. All contents will be weighed before the dinner and any remains will be re-weighed afterwards to determine the type and quantity of foods consumed. The ad libitum evening snacks will contain 3,000 kcal and will include common snack foods. After the testing day is complete, the participants will take the snack packout home and consume any of the foods he/she chooses until going to bed. All contents will be weighed before the packout and any remains will be re-weighed afterwards to determine the type and quantity of foods consumed. |
Countries
United States
Participant flow
Participants by arm
| Arm | Count |
|---|---|
| All Study Participants Each participant was randomly acclimated to the following snack patterns for 3 consecutive days: 1) Higher Protein Soy-based Snacks (250 kcal; 40% Protein; 40% Carbohydrates; 20% Fat); 2) Typical, Low Protein Snacks (5% Protein; 50% Carbohydrates; 45% Fat); and 3) No Snack. On day 4, participants completed all testing day procedures outlined in the study description. | 31 |
| Total | 31 |
Withdrawals & dropouts
| Period | Reason | FG000 | FG001 | FG002 | FG003 | FG004 | FG005 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Overall Study | Lost to Follow-up | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 |
| Overall Study | Noncompliance | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 |
| Overall Study | Time Constraints | 2 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
Baseline characteristics
| Characteristic | All Study Participants |
|---|---|
| Age, Continuous | 17 years STANDARD_DEVIATION 1 |
| BMI (%) | 58.4 Percentile STANDARD_DEVIATION 4.4 |
| BMI (kg/m2) | 22.3 kg/m2 STANDARD_DEVIATION 0.4 |
| Commonly consumed cereal as a snack | 25 % of total participants |
| Commonly consumed chips/crackers as a snack | 64 % of total participants |
| Commonly consumed fruit as a snack | 61 % of total participants |
| Frequency of Snacking | 6 days/week STANDARD_DEVIATION 1 |
| Height | 171 centimeters STANDARD_DEVIATION 2 |
| Region of Enrollment United States | 31 Participants |
| Sex: Female, Male Female | 16 Participants |
| Sex: Female, Male Male | 15 Participants |
| Weight | 65.6 kilograms STANDARD_DEVIATION 2.1 |
Adverse events
| Event type | EG000 affected / at risk | EG001 affected / at risk | EG002 affected / at risk |
|---|---|---|---|
| deaths Total, all-cause mortality | — / — | — / — | — / — |
| other Total, other adverse events | 0 / 31 | 0 / 31 | 0 / 31 |
| serious Total, serious adverse events | 0 / 31 | 0 / 31 | 0 / 31 |
Outcome results
Primary
Time to Dinner Request
The participants will be asked whether they would like to request a dinner buffet throughout the 5 h post-snack period. When the response is Yes, I want to eat right now, the time from snack consumption will be recorded.
Time frame: 1 Day
| Arm | Measure | Value (MEAN) | Dispersion |
|---|---|---|---|
| High Protein | Time to Dinner Request | 158 minutes | Standard Error 7 |
| High Fat (Low Protein) | Time to Dinner Request | 150 minutes | Standard Error 6 |
| No Snack | Time to Dinner Request | 140 minutes | Standard Error 6 |
Secondary
Appetite Questionnaires
Computerized questionnaires, assessing perceived sensations of appetite will be completed throughout the testing days. The questionnaires contain visual analog scales incorporating a 100 mm horizontal line rating scale for each response. The questions are worded as how strong is your feeling of with anchors of not all (scored as 0 out of 100) to extremely (scored as 100 out of 100). The following questions will be incorporated as 1 composite score ((Questions 1 + 3 + 4 - 2)/4) multiplied by the 300 minutes (a max of 30,000 mm\*min and a minimum of -30,000 mm\*min): 1. How strong is your feeling of hunger? 2. How strong is your feeling of being full? 3. How strong is your desire to eat? 4. How much food could you consume right now? The Adaptive Visual Analog Scale Software (Neurobehavioral Research Laboratory and Clinic; San Antonio, TX) was used for these assessments.
Time frame: 0 min, + 30 min, +60 min, +90 min, +120 min, +150 min, +180 min, +210 min, +240 min, +270 min, +300 min
| Arm | Measure | Value (MEAN) | Dispersion |
|---|---|---|---|
| High Protein | Appetite Questionnaires | -5500 mm*min | Standard Error 1000 |
| High Fat (Low Protein) | Appetite Questionnaires | -3000 mm*min | Standard Error 1000 |
| No Snack | Appetite Questionnaires | 3000 mm*min | Standard Error 1000 |
Secondary
Attention & Memory Questionnaires
Cognitive function will be assessed immediately before (-30 min) and 60 min post-snack using the lap-top based Cantab® computerized assessment system. This program consisted of a core battery of tests grouped into main categories including 1) Working Memory; 2) Reasoning; 3) Executive Function; 4) Reaction Time; 5) Sustained Attention; 6) Cognitive Flexibility; and 7) Processing Speed. This program has been used in our previous breakfast studies with success. A greater raw score for working memory, reasoning, executive function, sustained attention, and cognitive flexibility is considered to be greater performance. A lower score for reaction time and processing speed is considered to be greater performance. The raw scores are determined by Cantab® computerized assessment system. Therefore, maximum and minimum values for each test are unknown.
Time frame: 90 min
| Arm | Measure | Group | Value (MEAN) | Dispersion |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| High Protein | Attention & Memory Questionnaires | Reaction Time (post-snack) | 103 Units on a Scale | Standard Error 3 |
| High Protein | Attention & Memory Questionnaires | Executive Function (pre-snack) | 108 Units on a Scale | Standard Error 3 |
| High Protein | Attention & Memory Questionnaires | Working Memory (post-snack) | 106 Units on a Scale | Standard Error 2 |
| High Protein | Attention & Memory Questionnaires | Reasoning (post-snack) | 106 Units on a Scale | Standard Error 2 |
| High Protein | Attention & Memory Questionnaires | Executive function (post-snack) | 113 Units on a Scale | Standard Error 2 |
| High Protein | Attention & Memory Questionnaires | Sustained Attention (post-snack) | 106 Units on a Scale | Standard Error 1 |
| High Protein | Attention & Memory Questionnaires | Working Memory (pre-snack) | 102 Units on a Scale | Standard Error 3 |
| High Protein | Attention & Memory Questionnaires | Reasoning (pre-snack) | 107 Units on a Scale | Standard Error 2 |
| High Protein | Attention & Memory Questionnaires | Cognitive Flexibility (post-snack) | 112 Units on a Scale | Standard Error 3 |
| High Protein | Attention & Memory Questionnaires | Processing Speed (post-snack) | 118 Units on a Scale | Standard Error 3 |
| High Protein | Attention & Memory Questionnaires | Reaction Time (pre-snack) | 106 Units on a Scale | Standard Error 3 |
| High Protein | Attention & Memory Questionnaires | Sustained Attention (pre-snack) | 102 Units on a Scale | Standard Error 2 |
| High Protein | Attention & Memory Questionnaires | Cognitive Flexibility (pre-snack) | 108 Units on a Scale | Standard Error 4 |
| High Protein | Attention & Memory Questionnaires | Processing Speed (pre-snack) | 110 Units on a Scale | Standard Error 3 |
| High Fat (Low Protein) | Attention & Memory Questionnaires | Working Memory (pre-snack) | 106 Units on a Scale | Standard Error 2 |
| High Fat (Low Protein) | Attention & Memory Questionnaires | Reasoning (pre-snack) | 108 Units on a Scale | Standard Error 2 |
| High Fat (Low Protein) | Attention & Memory Questionnaires | Reaction Time (pre-snack) | 107 Units on a Scale | Standard Error 3 |
| High Fat (Low Protein) | Attention & Memory Questionnaires | Cognitive Flexibility (pre-snack) | 114 Units on a Scale | Standard Error 2 |
| High Fat (Low Protein) | Attention & Memory Questionnaires | Cognitive Flexibility (post-snack) | 116 Units on a Scale | Standard Error 2 |
| High Fat (Low Protein) | Attention & Memory Questionnaires | Working Memory (post-snack) | 106 Units on a Scale | Standard Error 2 |
| High Fat (Low Protein) | Attention & Memory Questionnaires | Reasoning (post-snack) | 110 Units on a Scale | Standard Error 2 |
| High Fat (Low Protein) | Attention & Memory Questionnaires | Executive function (post-snack) | 116 Units on a Scale | Standard Error 2 |
| High Fat (Low Protein) | Attention & Memory Questionnaires | Sustained Attention (pre-snack) | 105 Units on a Scale | Standard Error 1 |
| High Fat (Low Protein) | Attention & Memory Questionnaires | Processing Speed (pre-snack) | 114 Units on a Scale | Standard Error 3 |
| High Fat (Low Protein) | Attention & Memory Questionnaires | Executive Function (pre-snack) | 114 Units on a Scale | Standard Error 2 |
| High Fat (Low Protein) | Attention & Memory Questionnaires | Reaction Time (post-snack) | 107 Units on a Scale | Standard Error 3 |
| High Fat (Low Protein) | Attention & Memory Questionnaires | Processing Speed (post-snack) | 122 Units on a Scale | Standard Error 4 |
| High Fat (Low Protein) | Attention & Memory Questionnaires | Sustained Attention (post-snack) | 105 Units on a Scale | Standard Error 1 |
| No Snack | Attention & Memory Questionnaires | Sustained Attention (pre-snack) | 106 Units on a Scale | Standard Error 1 |
| No Snack | Attention & Memory Questionnaires | Sustained Attention (post-snack) | 104 Units on a Scale | Standard Error 2 |
| No Snack | Attention & Memory Questionnaires | Cognitive Flexibility (post-snack) | 112 Units on a Scale | Standard Error 2 |
| No Snack | Attention & Memory Questionnaires | Processing Speed (post-snack) | 119 Units on a Scale | Standard Error 3 |
| No Snack | Attention & Memory Questionnaires | Working Memory (post-snack) | 104 Units on a Scale | Standard Error 2 |
| No Snack | Attention & Memory Questionnaires | Reasoning (pre-snack) | 105 Units on a Scale | Standard Error 2 |
| No Snack | Attention & Memory Questionnaires | Executive Function (pre-snack) | 112 Units on a Scale | Standard Error 2 |
| No Snack | Attention & Memory Questionnaires | Processing Speed (pre-snack) | 112 Units on a Scale | Standard Error 3 |
| No Snack | Attention & Memory Questionnaires | Cognitive Flexibility (pre-snack) | 110 Units on a Scale | Standard Error 2 |
| No Snack | Attention & Memory Questionnaires | Reaction Time (pre-snack) | 103 Units on a Scale | Standard Error 2 |
| No Snack | Attention & Memory Questionnaires | Reasoning (post-snack) | 109 Units on a Scale | Standard Error 2 |
| No Snack | Attention & Memory Questionnaires | Executive function (post-snack) | 112 Units on a Scale | Standard Error 2 |
| No Snack | Attention & Memory Questionnaires | Working Memory (pre-snack) | 105 Units on a Scale | Standard Error 2 |
| No Snack | Attention & Memory Questionnaires | Reaction Time (post-snack) | 105 Units on a Scale | Standard Error 3 |
Secondary
Energy Intake
Post-snack energy intake will be assessed through ad libitum dinner and snacking assessments. The ad libitum dinner will contain approximately 2,000 kcal and will consist of a chicken, rice, and stir-fry meal, chips, chocolate mints, ice tea, and water. The dinner meal will be consumed in the testing facility. The participants will be instructed to eat as much as or as little as they choose over a 30 min period. All contents will be weighed before the dinner and any remains will be re-weighed afterwards to determine the type and quantity of foods consumed. The ad libitum evening snacks will contain 3,000 kcal and will include common snack foods. After the testing day is complete, the participants will take the snack packout home and consume any of the foods he/she chooses until going to bed. All contents will be weighed before the packout and any remains will be re-weighed afterwards to determine the type and quantity of foods consumed.
Time frame: +300 min, 24 h
| Arm | Measure | Value (MEAN) | Dispersion |
|---|---|---|---|
| High Protein | Energy Intake | 3080 kilojoules | Standard Error 230 |
| High Fat (Low Protein) | Energy Intake | 3370 kilojoules | Standard Error 290 |
| No Snack | Energy Intake | 3170 kilojoules | Standard Error 240 |
Secondary
Mood-state Questionnaires
Indices of mood state will be assessed immediately before and 60 min post-snack using the on-line, Profile of Mood States, 2nd Edition (POMS2). This program consisted of a core battery of tests with the following sub-categories 1) Tension; 2) Depression; 3) Anger; 4) Vigor; 5) Fatigue; 6) Confusion; and 7) Friendliness. Outcomes are scored as a T-score which could be a minimum of zero with no upper limit. A lower score represents a more positive mood state and a higher score represents a more negative mood state.
Time frame: -30 min, +60 min
| Arm | Measure | Group | Value (MEAN) | Dispersion |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| High Protein | Mood-state Questionnaires | Vigor (+60 min) | 44.2 T-Score | Standard Error 1.9 |
| High Protein | Mood-state Questionnaires | Anger (-30 min) | 41.7 T-Score | Standard Error 0.5 |
| High Protein | Mood-state Questionnaires | Fatigue (-30 min) | 47.4 T-Score | Standard Error 1.4 |
| High Protein | Mood-state Questionnaires | Anger (+60 min) | 40.8 T-Score | Standard Error 0.3 |
| High Protein | Mood-state Questionnaires | Tension (+60 min) | 42.2 T-Score | Standard Error 0.4 |
| High Protein | Mood-state Questionnaires | Depression (-30 min) | 43.5 T-Score | Standard Error 0.6 |
| High Protein | Mood-state Questionnaires | Depression (+60 min) | 55.1 T-Score | Standard Error 12.5 |
| High Protein | Mood-state Questionnaires | Friendliness (+60 min) | 44.4 T-Score | Standard Error 1.6 |
| High Protein | Mood-state Questionnaires | Vigor (-30 min) | 45.6 T-Score | Standard Error 1.8 |
| High Protein | Mood-state Questionnaires | Friendliness (-30 min) | 45.8 T-Score | Standard Error 1.6 |
| High Protein | Mood-state Questionnaires | Confusion (-30 min) | 43.5 T-Score | Standard Error 0.7 |
| High Protein | Mood-state Questionnaires | Confusion (+60 min) | 42.2 T-Score | Standard Error 0.5 |
| High Protein | Mood-state Questionnaires | Fatigue (+60 min) | 47.9 T-Score | Standard Error 1.3 |
| High Protein | Mood-state Questionnaires | Tension (-30 min | 42.8 T-Score | Standard Error 0.5 |
| High Fat (Low Protein) | Mood-state Questionnaires | Confusion (-30 min) | 42.1 T-Score | Standard Error 0.4 |
| High Fat (Low Protein) | Mood-state Questionnaires | Vigor (-30 min) | 44.2 T-Score | Standard Error 1.8 |
| High Fat (Low Protein) | Mood-state Questionnaires | Anger (-30 min) | 41.3 T-Score | Standard Error 0.4 |
| High Fat (Low Protein) | Mood-state Questionnaires | Vigor (+60 min) | 43.2 T-Score | Standard Error 1.6 |
| High Fat (Low Protein) | Mood-state Questionnaires | Fatigue (+60 min) | 47.2 T-Score | Standard Error 1.2 |
| High Fat (Low Protein) | Mood-state Questionnaires | Anger (+60 min) | 40.5 T-Score | Standard Error 0.2 |
| High Fat (Low Protein) | Mood-state Questionnaires | Depression (+60 min) | 42.5 T-Score | Standard Error 0.2 |
| High Fat (Low Protein) | Mood-state Questionnaires | Tension (-30 min | 42.4 T-Score | Standard Error 0.4 |
| High Fat (Low Protein) | Mood-state Questionnaires | Depression (-30 min) | 42.8 T-Score | Standard Error 0.5 |
| High Fat (Low Protein) | Mood-state Questionnaires | Friendliness (-30 min) | 45.3 T-Score | Standard Error 1.6 |
| High Fat (Low Protein) | Mood-state Questionnaires | Tension (+60 min) | 42.1 T-Score | Standard Error 0.4 |
| High Fat (Low Protein) | Mood-state Questionnaires | Fatigue (-30 min) | 48.2 T-Score | Standard Error 1.3 |
| High Fat (Low Protein) | Mood-state Questionnaires | Friendliness (+60 min) | 44.0 T-Score | Standard Error 1.7 |
| High Fat (Low Protein) | Mood-state Questionnaires | Confusion (+60 min) | 41.8 T-Score | Standard Error 0.4 |
| No Snack | Mood-state Questionnaires | Friendliness (+60 min) | 43.3 T-Score | Standard Error 1.5 |
| No Snack | Mood-state Questionnaires | Confusion (+60 min) | 42.4 T-Score | Standard Error 0.5 |
| No Snack | Mood-state Questionnaires | Fatigue (-30 min) | 49.6 T-Score | Standard Error 1.4 |
| No Snack | Mood-state Questionnaires | Fatigue (+60 min) | 50 T-Score | Standard Error 1.2 |
| No Snack | Mood-state Questionnaires | Tension (-30 min | 43.2 T-Score | Standard Error 0.7 |
| No Snack | Mood-state Questionnaires | Tension (+60 min) | 41.9 T-Score | Standard Error 0.3 |
| No Snack | Mood-state Questionnaires | Depression (-30 min) | 43.1 T-Score | Standard Error 0.6 |
| No Snack | Mood-state Questionnaires | Confusion (-30 min) | 42.3 T-Score | Standard Error 0.6 |
| No Snack | Mood-state Questionnaires | Vigor (-30 min) | 45.0 T-Score | Standard Error 1.2 |
| No Snack | Mood-state Questionnaires | Vigor (+60 min) | 42.3 T-Score | Standard Error 1.5 |
| No Snack | Mood-state Questionnaires | Anger (-30 min) | 41.5 T-Score | Standard Error 0.5 |
| No Snack | Mood-state Questionnaires | Anger (+60 min) | 41.5 T-Score | Standard Error 0.6 |
| No Snack | Mood-state Questionnaires | Depression (+60 min) | 43 T-Score | Standard Error 0.5 |
| No Snack | Mood-state Questionnaires | Friendliness (-30 min) | 46.8 T-Score | Standard Error 1.4 |
Secondary
Snack Palatability and Perception Questionnaires
Computerized questionnaires, assessing snack palatability and perceptions of the snack will be completed during screening and after the first and last bite of each snack during the acclimation and testing days. The questionnaires contain visual analog scales incorporating a 100 mm horizontal line rating scale for each response. The questions are worded as how strong is your feeling of with anchors of not all (scores 0 out of 100) to extremely (scores 100 out of 100). The questions assess snack appearance, smell, flavor, texture (feel), liking. The Adaptive Visual Analog Scale Software (Neurobehavioral Research Laboratory and Clinic; San Antonio, TX) was used for these assessments.
Time frame: 5 min
| Arm | Measure | Value (MEAN) | Dispersion |
|---|---|---|---|
| High Protein | Snack Palatability and Perception Questionnaires | 69 millimeters | Standard Error 4 |
| High Fat (Low Protein) | Snack Palatability and Perception Questionnaires | 80 millimeters | Standard Error 3 |
| No Snack | Snack Palatability and Perception Questionnaires | NA millimeters | — |