Development
Conditions
Keywords
Breastfeeding, Flavor learning, Mother, Moms, Infants, Babies, Baby, Food Habits, Fruits, Vegetables
Brief summary
The goals of the proposed research are to specify the timing and consequences of the sensitive period for flavor learning in infants who are being breastfed or formula fed. The investigators will conduct a randomized within- and between-subject study of women and their infants during a 15-month window.
Detailed description
This is a randomized clinical trial on both breastfeeding and formula feeding infants to determine the effects of the timing of flavor experiences on subsequent food acceptance in both members of the dyad.
Interventions
OTHERTiming of Diet and Flavor Experience
Groups differ in the timing and duration of exposure to flavored food experience.
Sponsors
Monell Chemical Senses Center
Study design
Allocation
RANDOMIZED
Intervention model
PARALLEL
Primary purpose
OTHER
Masking
TRIPLE (Subject, Caregiver, Investigator)
Eligibility
Sex/Gender
ALL
Age
2 Weeks to 3 Weeks
Healthy volunteers
Yes
Inclusion criteria
* Healthy, term infants and their mothers * Infants 2 wks (+/- 2 wk of age) * Mothers and infants exclusively breastfeeding or exclusively feeding a cows-milk based formula * Mothers must be older than 18 years of age
Exclusion criteria
* Infants who were preterm or have medical conditions that interfere with feeding or eating * Mothers who had gestational diabetes or are diagnosed with a major illness requiring treatment or surgery * Mothers who will be going back to work full-time before the infant is 4 months old * Mothers who are allergic to any vegetables * Subjects will not be excluded because of economic status, gender, race or ethnicity.
Design outcomes
Primary
| Measure | Time frame | Description |
|---|---|---|
| Vegetable Flavor Acceptance [Infants' Intake] | 6- to 10-month-old weaned infants (3 separate test days ) | Taste testing conducted on infants to determine acceptance of plain cereal, carrot-flavor cereal (exposed flavor for intervention groups) and broccoli-flavored cereal (novel flavor for all groups) after weaning, which occurred at \ 8 months of age. Outcomes included intake (in grams). |
| Taste Liking Ratings of Vegetable Flavors [Mothers]. | Monthly, 0.5 to 4.5 months | Psychophysical testing conducted on mothers to rate their taste of carrot, beet, celery, mixed vegetable (exposed flavors for intervention groups) and apple juices using the hedonic gLMS (hedonic general labelled magnitude scale). Ratings on the scale range from -100 (strongest imaginable dislike) to 0 (neutral) to 100 (strongest imaginable like). |
| Vegetable Flavor Acceptance (Infants' Rate of Feeding) | 6- to 10-month-old weaned infants (3 separate test days) | Taste testing conducted on infants to determine acceptance of plain cereal, carrot-flavor cereal (exposed flavor for intervention groups) and broccoli-flavored cereal (novel flavor for all groups) after weaning, which occurred at \ 8 months of age. Outcomes included intake rate of feeding (grams per minute) . |
Secondary
| Measure | Time frame | Description |
|---|---|---|
| Maternal Perceptions | 6- to 10-month-old weaned infants (3 separate test days) | Mothers rated infants' enjoyment of the taste of the cereal (9-point scale); aratings range from 1 (extreme dislike) to 9 (extreme like). |
| Growth of Infants | Once a month from ages 0.5 - 4.5 months, 10.5 months | At each visit, infants were weighed and measured to monitor normal growth. These anthropometric data were converted to weight-for-length z-scores (WLZ) using World Health Organization (WHO) growth standards. The Z-score expresses the anthropometric value as a number of standard deviations or Z-scores below or above the reference mean or median value. Normal range for Z score is -2.0 (minimum) to 2.0 (maximum). |
Countries
United States
Participant flow
Recruitment details
Pregnant women or newly parturient women who intended to breastfeed their infants exclusively for at least 4 months were recruited from ads in local newspapers, websites, and Philadelphia Women, Infants, and Children (WIC) offices. We enroll mother -infant dyads because both members of the dyads were tested.
Pre-assignment details
No mother-infant dyads were excluded from the study prior to assignment to groups.
Participants by arm
| Arm | Count |
|---|---|
| 1M0.5 Mothers will receive the intervention for 1 month beginning when their infant is 0.5 months old.
Intervention: Timing of Diet and Flavor Experience
Timing of Diet and Flavor Experience: Groups differ in the timing and duration of exposure to flavored food experience. | 20 |
| 1M1.5 Mothers will receive the intervention for 1 month beginning when their infant is 1.5 months old.
Intervention: Timing of Diet and Flavor Experience
Timing of Diet and Flavor Experience: Groups differ in the timing and duration of exposure to flavored food experience. | 20 |
| 1M2.5 Mothers will receive the intervention for one month beginning when their infants are 2.5 months old.
Intervention: Timing of Diet and Flavor Experience
Timing of Diet and Flavor Experience: Groups differ in the timing and duration of exposure to flavored food experience. | 21 |
| 3M0.5 Mothers will receive the intervention for 3 months beginning when their infant is 0.5 months old.
Intervention: Timing of Diet and Flavor Experience
Timing of Diet and Flavor Experience: Groups differ in the timing and duration of exposure to flavored food experience. | 20 |
| Control Mothers will not receive the intervention. | 16 |
| Total | 97 |
Withdrawals & dropouts
| Period | Reason | FG000 | FG001 | FG002 | FG003 | FG004 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Overall Study | Withdrawal by Subject | 3 | 5 | 7 | 6 | 1 |
Baseline characteristics
| Characteristic | 1M0.5 | 1M1.5 | 1M2.5 | 3M0.5 | Control | Total |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Age, Continuous Infants' Age in months | 0.5 Months STANDARD_DEVIATION 0.1 | 0.6 Months STANDARD_DEVIATION 0.1 | 0.6 Months STANDARD_DEVIATION 0.1 | 0.6 Months STANDARD_DEVIATION 0.1 | 0.5 Months STANDARD_DEVIATION 0.1 | 0.5 Months STANDARD_DEVIATION 0.1 |
| Age, Continuous | 32.5 Mothers' Age in years STANDARD_DEVIATION 4.4 | 30.5 Mothers' Age in years STANDARD_DEVIATION 6.2 | 29.8 Mothers' Age in years STANDARD_DEVIATION 5.2 | 29.9 Mothers' Age in years STANDARD_DEVIATION 5.1 | 31.7 Mothers' Age in years STANDARD_DEVIATION 5.9 | 30.8 Mothers' Age in years STANDARD_DEVIATION 5.4 |
| Ethnicity (NIH/OMB) Infants Hispanic or Latino | 2 Participants | 4 Participants | 4 Participants | 3 Participants | 1 Participants | 14 Participants |
| Ethnicity (NIH/OMB) Infants Not Hispanic or Latino | 18 Participants | 16 Participants | 17 Participants | 17 Participants | 15 Participants | 83 Participants |
| Ethnicity (NIH/OMB) Infants Unknown or Not Reported | 0 Participants | 0 Participants | 0 Participants | 0 Participants | 0 Participants | 0 Participants |
| Ethnicity (NIH/OMB) Mothers Hispanic or Latino | 2 Participants | 3 Participants | 2 Participants | 2 Participants | 0 Participants | 9 Participants |
| Ethnicity (NIH/OMB) Mothers Not Hispanic or Latino | 18 Participants | 17 Participants | 19 Participants | 18 Participants | 16 Participants | 88 Participants |
| Ethnicity (NIH/OMB) Mothers Unknown or Not Reported | 0 Participants | 0 Participants | 0 Participants | 0 Participants | 0 Participants | 0 Participants |
| Genotype, TAS2R38 taste gene [secondary outcome] Infants Genotyping unsuccessful | 0 Participants | 0 Participants | 0 Participants | 0 Participants | 1 Participants | 1 Participants |
| Genotype, TAS2R38 taste gene [secondary outcome] Infants TAS2R38 genotype, AA [non taster] | 7 Participants | 6 Participants | 3 Participants | 7 Participants | 8 Participants | 31 Participants |
| Genotype, TAS2R38 taste gene [secondary outcome] Infants TAS2R38 genotype AP [taster, heterozygote] | 12 Participants | 8 Participants | 11 Participants | 7 Participants | 5 Participants | 43 Participants |
| Genotype, TAS2R38 taste gene [secondary outcome] Infants TAS2R38 genotype PP [taster] | 1 Participants | 6 Participants | 7 Participants | 6 Participants | 2 Participants | 22 Participants |
| Genotype, TAS2R38 taste gene [secondary outcome] Mothers Genotyping unsuccessful | 0 Participants | 0 Participants | 0 Participants | 0 Participants | 0 Participants | 0 Participants |
| Genotype, TAS2R38 taste gene [secondary outcome] Mothers TAS2R38 genotype, AA [non taster] | 4 Participants | 5 Participants | 5 Participants | 7 Participants | 11 Participants | 32 Participants |
| Genotype, TAS2R38 taste gene [secondary outcome] Mothers TAS2R38 genotype AP [taster, heterozygote] | 12 Participants | 9 Participants | 9 Participants | 8 Participants | 3 Participants | 41 Participants |
| Genotype, TAS2R38 taste gene [secondary outcome] Mothers TAS2R38 genotype PP [taster] | 4 Participants | 6 Participants | 7 Participants | 5 Participants | 2 Participants | 24 Participants |
| Race (NIH/OMB) Infants American Indian or Alaska Native | 0 Participants | 0 Participants | 0 Participants | 0 Participants | 0 Participants | 0 Participants |
| Race (NIH/OMB) Infants Asian | 0 Participants | 1 Participants | 0 Participants | 0 Participants | 1 Participants | 2 Participants |
| Race (NIH/OMB) Infants Black or African American | 3 Participants | 7 Participants | 8 Participants | 8 Participants | 5 Participants | 31 Participants |
| Race (NIH/OMB) Infants More than one race | 4 Participants | 3 Participants | 4 Participants | 3 Participants | 1 Participants | 15 Participants |
| Race (NIH/OMB) Infants Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander | 0 Participants | 0 Participants | 0 Participants | 0 Participants | 0 Participants | 0 Participants |
| Race (NIH/OMB) Infants Unknown or Not Reported | 0 Participants | 0 Participants | 0 Participants | 0 Participants | 0 Participants | 0 Participants |
| Race (NIH/OMB) Infants White | 13 Participants | 9 Participants | 9 Participants | 9 Participants | 9 Participants | 49 Participants |
| Race (NIH/OMB) Mothers American Indian or Alaska Native | 0 Participants | 0 Participants | 0 Participants | 0 Participants | 0 Participants | 0 Participants |
| Race (NIH/OMB) Mothers Asian | 0 Participants | 1 Participants | 0 Participants | 0 Participants | 1 Participants | 2 Participants |
| Race (NIH/OMB) Mothers Black or African American | 4 Participants | 7 Participants | 10 Participants | 9 Participants | 5 Participants | 35 Participants |
| Race (NIH/OMB) Mothers More than one race | 2 Participants | 3 Participants | 0 Participants | 1 Participants | 0 Participants | 6 Participants |
| Race (NIH/OMB) Mothers Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander | 0 Participants | 0 Participants | 0 Participants | 0 Participants | 0 Participants | 0 Participants |
| Race (NIH/OMB) Mothers Unknown or Not Reported | 0 Participants | 0 Participants | 0 Participants | 0 Participants | 0 Participants | 0 Participants |
| Race (NIH/OMB) Mothers White | 14 Participants | 9 Participants | 11 Participants | 10 Participants | 10 Participants | 54 Participants |
| Sex: Female, Male Sex of Infants Female | 10 Participants | 11 Participants | 9 Participants | 13 Participants | 7 Participants | 50 Participants |
| Sex: Female, Male Sex of Infants Male | 10 Participants | 9 Participants | 12 Participants | 7 Participants | 9 Participants | 47 Participants |
| Sex: Female, Male Sex of Mothers Female | 20 Participants | 20 Participants | 21 Participants | 20 Participants | 16 Participants | 97 Participants |
| Sex: Female, Male Sex of Mothers Male | 0 Participants | 0 Participants | 0 Participants | 0 Participants | 0 Participants | 0 Participants |
Adverse events
| Event type | EG000 affected / at risk | EG001 affected / at risk | EG002 affected / at risk | EG003 affected / at risk | EG004 affected / at risk |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| deaths Total, all-cause mortality | 0 / 20 | 0 / 20 | 0 / 21 | 0 / 20 | 0 / 16 |
| other Total, other adverse events | 0 / 20 | 0 / 20 | 0 / 21 | 0 / 20 | 0 / 16 |
| serious Total, serious adverse events | 0 / 20 | 0 / 20 | 0 / 21 | 0 / 20 | 0 / 16 |
Outcome results
Primary
Taste Liking Ratings of Vegetable Flavors [Mothers].
Psychophysical testing conducted on mothers to rate their taste of carrot, beet, celery, mixed vegetable (exposed flavors for intervention groups) and apple juices using the hedonic gLMS (hedonic general labelled magnitude scale). Ratings on the scale range from -100 (strongest imaginable dislike) to 0 (neutral) to 100 (strongest imaginable like).
Time frame: Monthly, 0.5 to 4.5 months
Population: Two mothers did not complete the ratings on one test date.
| Arm | Measure | Group | Value (MEAN) | Dispersion |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1M0.5 | Taste Liking Ratings of Vegetable Flavors [Mothers]. | Carrot, 1.5 mos | 6.21 units on a scale | Standard Error 3.41 |
| 1M0.5 | Taste Liking Ratings of Vegetable Flavors [Mothers]. | Mixed Vegetables, 1.5 mos | 9.48 units on a scale | Standard Error 3.96 |
| 1M0.5 | Taste Liking Ratings of Vegetable Flavors [Mothers]. | Mixed Vegetables, 0.5 mos (baseline) | 1.22 units on a scale | Standard Error 5.05 |
| 1M0.5 | Taste Liking Ratings of Vegetable Flavors [Mothers]. | Beet, 4.5 mos | 8.63 units on a scale | Standard Error 3.48 |
| 1M0.5 | Taste Liking Ratings of Vegetable Flavors [Mothers]. | Beet, 2.5 mos | 9.29 units on a scale | Standard Error 3.5 |
| 1M0.5 | Taste Liking Ratings of Vegetable Flavors [Mothers]. | Apple, 3.5 mos | 13.39 units on a scale | Standard Error 3.52 |
| 1M0.5 | Taste Liking Ratings of Vegetable Flavors [Mothers]. | Beet, 3.5 mos | 10.87 units on a scale | Standard Error 3.94 |
| 1M0.5 | Taste Liking Ratings of Vegetable Flavors [Mothers]. | Apple, 2.5 months | 18.09 units on a scale | Standard Error 2.95 |
| 1M0.5 | Taste Liking Ratings of Vegetable Flavors [Mothers]. | Apple, 1.5 mos | 17.04 units on a scale | Standard Error 2.98 |
| 1M0.5 | Taste Liking Ratings of Vegetable Flavors [Mothers]. | Carrot, 3.5 mos | 3.10 units on a scale | Standard Error 3.36 |
| 1M0.5 | Taste Liking Ratings of Vegetable Flavors [Mothers]. | Carrot, 0.5 mos (baseline) | -0.07 units on a scale | Standard Error 4.84 |
| 1M0.5 | Taste Liking Ratings of Vegetable Flavors [Mothers]. | Apple, 0.5 mos (Baseline) | 17.85 units on a scale | Standard Error 3.64 |
| 1M0.5 | Taste Liking Ratings of Vegetable Flavors [Mothers]. | Celery, 4.5 mos | -6.15 units on a scale | Standard Error 3.77 |
| 1M0.5 | Taste Liking Ratings of Vegetable Flavors [Mothers]. | Celery, 3.5 mos | -5.12 units on a scale | Standard Error 3.72 |
| 1M0.5 | Taste Liking Ratings of Vegetable Flavors [Mothers]. | Carrot, 4.5 mos | 5.86 units on a scale | Standard Error 3.35 |
| 1M0.5 | Taste Liking Ratings of Vegetable Flavors [Mothers]. | Apple, 4.5 months | 15.89 units on a scale | Standard Error 2.73 |
| 1M0.5 | Taste Liking Ratings of Vegetable Flavors [Mothers]. | Celery, 2.5 mos | -0.92 units on a scale | Standard Error 3.99 |
| 1M0.5 | Taste Liking Ratings of Vegetable Flavors [Mothers]. | Celery, 1.5 mos | -3.93 units on a scale | Standard Error 3.86 |
| 1M0.5 | Taste Liking Ratings of Vegetable Flavors [Mothers]. | Celery, 0.5 mos (baseline) | 0.59 units on a scale | Standard Error 4.72 |
| 1M0.5 | Taste Liking Ratings of Vegetable Flavors [Mothers]. | Beet, 0.5 mos (baseline) | 5.81 units on a scale | Standard Error 5.37 |
| 1M0.5 | Taste Liking Ratings of Vegetable Flavors [Mothers]. | Carrot, 2.5 mos | 5.67 units on a scale | Standard Error 3.19 |
| 1M0.5 | Taste Liking Ratings of Vegetable Flavors [Mothers]. | Mixed Vegetables, 4.5 mos | 8.40 units on a scale | Standard Error 3.32 |
| 1M0.5 | Taste Liking Ratings of Vegetable Flavors [Mothers]. | Mixed Vegetables, 3.5 mos | 7.00 units on a scale | Standard Error 3.52 |
| 1M0.5 | Taste Liking Ratings of Vegetable Flavors [Mothers]. | Mixed Vegetables, 2.5 mos | 10.19 units on a scale | Standard Error 3.31 |
| 1M0.5 | Taste Liking Ratings of Vegetable Flavors [Mothers]. | Beet, 1.5 mos | 3.13 units on a scale | Standard Error 4.16 |
| 1M1.5 | Taste Liking Ratings of Vegetable Flavors [Mothers]. | Beet, 2.5 mos | 6.41 units on a scale | Standard Error 3.73 |
| 1M1.5 | Taste Liking Ratings of Vegetable Flavors [Mothers]. | Carrot, 2.5 mos | 3.51 units on a scale | Standard Error 3.39 |
| 1M1.5 | Taste Liking Ratings of Vegetable Flavors [Mothers]. | Carrot, 3.5 mos | 6.20 units on a scale | Standard Error 3.71 |
| 1M1.5 | Taste Liking Ratings of Vegetable Flavors [Mothers]. | Carrot, 4.5 mos | 4.82 units on a scale | Standard Error 3.69 |
| 1M1.5 | Taste Liking Ratings of Vegetable Flavors [Mothers]. | Beet, 0.5 mos (baseline) | 1.18 units on a scale | Standard Error 5.72 |
| 1M1.5 | Taste Liking Ratings of Vegetable Flavors [Mothers]. | Beet, 1.5 mos | 9.35 units on a scale | Standard Error 4.43 |
| 1M1.5 | Taste Liking Ratings of Vegetable Flavors [Mothers]. | Carrot, 1.5 mos | 1.28 units on a scale | Standard Error 3.63 |
| 1M1.5 | Taste Liking Ratings of Vegetable Flavors [Mothers]. | Beet, 3.5 mos | 7.74 units on a scale | Standard Error 4.34 |
| 1M1.5 | Taste Liking Ratings of Vegetable Flavors [Mothers]. | Beet, 4.5 mos | 10.34 units on a scale | Standard Error 3.83 |
| 1M1.5 | Taste Liking Ratings of Vegetable Flavors [Mothers]. | Mixed Vegetables, 0.5 mos (baseline) | 0.20 units on a scale | Standard Error 5.38 |
| 1M1.5 | Taste Liking Ratings of Vegetable Flavors [Mothers]. | Mixed Vegetables, 1.5 mos | 0.18 units on a scale | Standard Error 4.22 |
| 1M1.5 | Taste Liking Ratings of Vegetable Flavors [Mothers]. | Mixed Vegetables, 2.5 mos | 6.32 units on a scale | Standard Error 3.52 |
| 1M1.5 | Taste Liking Ratings of Vegetable Flavors [Mothers]. | Mixed Vegetables, 3.5 mos | 5.69 units on a scale | Standard Error 3.88 |
| 1M1.5 | Taste Liking Ratings of Vegetable Flavors [Mothers]. | Mixed Vegetables, 4.5 mos | 6.83 units on a scale | Standard Error 3.66 |
| 1M1.5 | Taste Liking Ratings of Vegetable Flavors [Mothers]. | Celery, 0.5 mos (baseline) | -5.33 units on a scale | Standard Error 5.02 |
| 1M1.5 | Taste Liking Ratings of Vegetable Flavors [Mothers]. | Celery, 1.5 mos | -0.90 units on a scale | Standard Error 3.92 |
| 1M1.5 | Taste Liking Ratings of Vegetable Flavors [Mothers]. | Celery, 2.5 mos | -0.51 units on a scale | Standard Error 4.24 |
| 1M1.5 | Taste Liking Ratings of Vegetable Flavors [Mothers]. | Celery, 3.5 mos | 1.07 units on a scale | Standard Error 4.1 |
| 1M1.5 | Taste Liking Ratings of Vegetable Flavors [Mothers]. | Celery, 4.5 mos | -1.44 units on a scale | Standard Error 4.16 |
| 1M1.5 | Taste Liking Ratings of Vegetable Flavors [Mothers]. | Apple, 0.5 mos (Baseline) | 17.48 units on a scale | Standard Error 3.88 |
| 1M1.5 | Taste Liking Ratings of Vegetable Flavors [Mothers]. | Apple, 1.5 mos | 20.08 units on a scale | Standard Error 3.17 |
| 1M1.5 | Taste Liking Ratings of Vegetable Flavors [Mothers]. | Apple, 2.5 months | 15.97 units on a scale | Standard Error 3.15 |
| 1M1.5 | Taste Liking Ratings of Vegetable Flavors [Mothers]. | Apple, 3.5 mos | 22.56 units on a scale | Standard Error 3.88 |
| 1M1.5 | Taste Liking Ratings of Vegetable Flavors [Mothers]. | Apple, 4.5 months | 19.87 units on a scale | Standard Error 3.01 |
| 1M1.5 | Taste Liking Ratings of Vegetable Flavors [Mothers]. | Carrot, 0.5 mos (baseline) | -3.35 units on a scale | Standard Error 5.15 |
| 1M2.5 | Taste Liking Ratings of Vegetable Flavors [Mothers]. | Carrot, 1.5 mos | 3.91 units on a scale | Standard Error 3.75 |
| 1M2.5 | Taste Liking Ratings of Vegetable Flavors [Mothers]. | Celery, 1.5 mos | -13.48 units on a scale | Standard Error 4.06 |
| 1M2.5 | Taste Liking Ratings of Vegetable Flavors [Mothers]. | Beet, 1.5 mos | -2.20 units on a scale | Standard Error 4.58 |
| 1M2.5 | Taste Liking Ratings of Vegetable Flavors [Mothers]. | Apple, 0.5 mos (Baseline) | 22.41 units on a scale | Standard Error 4.02 |
| 1M2.5 | Taste Liking Ratings of Vegetable Flavors [Mothers]. | Carrot, 4.5 mos | 6.20 units on a scale | Standard Error 3.69 |
| 1M2.5 | Taste Liking Ratings of Vegetable Flavors [Mothers]. | Apple, 4.5 months | 15.45 units on a scale | Standard Error 3.01 |
| 1M2.5 | Taste Liking Ratings of Vegetable Flavors [Mothers]. | Celery, 2.5 mos | -3.01 units on a scale | Standard Error 4.39 |
| 1M2.5 | Taste Liking Ratings of Vegetable Flavors [Mothers]. | Mixed Vegetables, 0.5 mos (baseline) | 0.82 units on a scale | Standard Error 5.57 |
| 1M2.5 | Taste Liking Ratings of Vegetable Flavors [Mothers]. | Carrot, 3.5 mos | 7.78 units on a scale | Standard Error 3.7 |
| 1M2.5 | Taste Liking Ratings of Vegetable Flavors [Mothers]. | Celery, 4.5 mos | -5.89 units on a scale | Standard Error 4.16 |
| 1M2.5 | Taste Liking Ratings of Vegetable Flavors [Mothers]. | Mixed Vegetables, 3.5 mos | 3.81 units on a scale | Standard Error 3.88 |
| 1M2.5 | Taste Liking Ratings of Vegetable Flavors [Mothers]. | Celery, 3.5 mos | -10.40 units on a scale | Standard Error 4.1 |
| 1M2.5 | Taste Liking Ratings of Vegetable Flavors [Mothers]. | Apple, 3.5 mos | 17.01 units on a scale | Standard Error 3.88 |
| 1M2.5 | Taste Liking Ratings of Vegetable Flavors [Mothers]. | Beet, 4.5 mos | 9.35 units on a scale | Standard Error 3.83 |
| 1M2.5 | Taste Liking Ratings of Vegetable Flavors [Mothers]. | Beet, 0.5 mos (baseline) | -0.65 units on a scale | Standard Error 5.92 |
| 1M2.5 | Taste Liking Ratings of Vegetable Flavors [Mothers]. | Beet, 3.5 mos | 7.54 units on a scale | Standard Error 4.34 |
| 1M2.5 | Taste Liking Ratings of Vegetable Flavors [Mothers]. | Mixed Vegetables, 4.5 mos | 1.02 units on a scale | Standard Error 3.66 |
| 1M2.5 | Taste Liking Ratings of Vegetable Flavors [Mothers]. | Mixed Vegetables, 2.5 mos | 2.23 units on a scale | Standard Error 3.65 |
| 1M2.5 | Taste Liking Ratings of Vegetable Flavors [Mothers]. | Beet, 2.5 mos | -0.68 units on a scale | Standard Error 3.86 |
| 1M2.5 | Taste Liking Ratings of Vegetable Flavors [Mothers]. | Apple, 2.5 months | 17.91 units on a scale | Standard Error 3.26 |
| 1M2.5 | Taste Liking Ratings of Vegetable Flavors [Mothers]. | Carrot, 0.5 mos (baseline) | -1.28 units on a scale | Standard Error 5.33 |
| 1M2.5 | Taste Liking Ratings of Vegetable Flavors [Mothers]. | Celery, 0.5 mos (baseline) | -13.35 units on a scale | Standard Error 5.2 |
| 1M2.5 | Taste Liking Ratings of Vegetable Flavors [Mothers]. | Mixed Vegetables, 1.5 mos | 1.11 units on a scale | Standard Error 4.36 |
| 1M2.5 | Taste Liking Ratings of Vegetable Flavors [Mothers]. | Apple, 1.5 mos | 11.81 units on a scale | Standard Error 3.28 |
| 1M2.5 | Taste Liking Ratings of Vegetable Flavors [Mothers]. | Carrot, 2.5 mos | 2.08 units on a scale | Standard Error 3.51 |
| 3M0.5 | Taste Liking Ratings of Vegetable Flavors [Mothers]. | Celery, 3.5 mos | -8.07 units on a scale | Standard Error 4.1 |
| 3M0.5 | Taste Liking Ratings of Vegetable Flavors [Mothers]. | Mixed Vegetables, 1.5 mos | 4.30 units on a scale | Standard Error 4.36 |
| 3M0.5 | Taste Liking Ratings of Vegetable Flavors [Mothers]. | Mixed Vegetables, 2.5 mos | 6.14 units on a scale | Standard Error 3.65 |
| 3M0.5 | Taste Liking Ratings of Vegetable Flavors [Mothers]. | Beet, 0.5 mos (baseline) | 0.87 units on a scale | Standard Error 5.92 |
| 3M0.5 | Taste Liking Ratings of Vegetable Flavors [Mothers]. | Apple, 3.5 mos | 19.56 units on a scale | Standard Error 3.88 |
| 3M0.5 | Taste Liking Ratings of Vegetable Flavors [Mothers]. | Mixed Vegetables, 3.5 mos | 6.01 units on a scale | Standard Error 3.88 |
| 3M0.5 | Taste Liking Ratings of Vegetable Flavors [Mothers]. | Mixed Vegetables, 4.5 mos | 3.62 units on a scale | Standard Error 3.66 |
| 3M0.5 | Taste Liking Ratings of Vegetable Flavors [Mothers]. | Celery, 0.5 mos (baseline) | -12.46 units on a scale | Standard Error 5.2 |
| 3M0.5 | Taste Liking Ratings of Vegetable Flavors [Mothers]. | Carrot, 4.5 mos | 2.63 units on a scale | Standard Error 3.69 |
| 3M0.5 | Taste Liking Ratings of Vegetable Flavors [Mothers]. | Celery, 1.5 mos | -9.68 units on a scale | Standard Error 4.06 |
| 3M0.5 | Taste Liking Ratings of Vegetable Flavors [Mothers]. | Celery, 2.5 mos | -6.20 units on a scale | Standard Error 4.39 |
| 3M0.5 | Taste Liking Ratings of Vegetable Flavors [Mothers]. | Apple, 4.5 months | 19.94 units on a scale | Standard Error 3.01 |
| 3M0.5 | Taste Liking Ratings of Vegetable Flavors [Mothers]. | Carrot, 0.5 mos (baseline) | -2.02 units on a scale | Standard Error 5.33 |
| 3M0.5 | Taste Liking Ratings of Vegetable Flavors [Mothers]. | Carrot, 3.5 mos | 3.05 units on a scale | Standard Error 3.71 |
| 3M0.5 | Taste Liking Ratings of Vegetable Flavors [Mothers]. | Celery, 4.5 mos | -5.87 units on a scale | Standard Error 4.16 |
| 3M0.5 | Taste Liking Ratings of Vegetable Flavors [Mothers]. | Carrot, 1.5 mos | 4.17 units on a scale | Standard Error 3.75 |
| 3M0.5 | Taste Liking Ratings of Vegetable Flavors [Mothers]. | Apple, 0.5 mos (Baseline) | 14.57 units on a scale | Standard Error 4.02 |
| 3M0.5 | Taste Liking Ratings of Vegetable Flavors [Mothers]. | Apple, 1.5 mos | 18.23 units on a scale | Standard Error 3.28 |
| 3M0.5 | Taste Liking Ratings of Vegetable Flavors [Mothers]. | Carrot, 2.5 mos | 6.30 units on a scale | Standard Error 3.51 |
| 3M0.5 | Taste Liking Ratings of Vegetable Flavors [Mothers]. | Beet, 2.5 mos | 1.02 units on a scale | Standard Error 3.86 |
| 3M0.5 | Taste Liking Ratings of Vegetable Flavors [Mothers]. | Apple, 2.5 months | 16.72 units on a scale | Standard Error 3.26 |
| 3M0.5 | Taste Liking Ratings of Vegetable Flavors [Mothers]. | Beet, 3.5 mos | 3.52 units on a scale | Standard Error 4.34 |
| 3M0.5 | Taste Liking Ratings of Vegetable Flavors [Mothers]. | Beet, 4.5 mos | 3.58 units on a scale | Standard Error 3.83 |
| 3M0.5 | Taste Liking Ratings of Vegetable Flavors [Mothers]. | Beet, 1.5 mos | 3.40 units on a scale | Standard Error 4.58 |
| 3M0.5 | Taste Liking Ratings of Vegetable Flavors [Mothers]. | Mixed Vegetables, 0.5 mos (baseline) | 0.97 units on a scale | Standard Error 5.57 |
| Control | Taste Liking Ratings of Vegetable Flavors [Mothers]. | Carrot, 0.5 mos (baseline) | -4.71 units on a scale | Standard Error 5.15 |
| Control | Taste Liking Ratings of Vegetable Flavors [Mothers]. | Celery, 0.5 mos (baseline) | -10.36 units on a scale | Standard Error 5.02 |
| Control | Taste Liking Ratings of Vegetable Flavors [Mothers]. | Mixed Vegetables, 1.5 mos | 10.69 units on a scale | Standard Error 4.22 |
| Control | Taste Liking Ratings of Vegetable Flavors [Mothers]. | Apple, 1.5 mos | 20.36 units on a scale | Standard Error 3.17 |
| Control | Taste Liking Ratings of Vegetable Flavors [Mothers]. | Beet, 4.5 mos | 7.89 units on a scale | Standard Error 3.7 |
| Control | Taste Liking Ratings of Vegetable Flavors [Mothers]. | Carrot, 1.5 mos | 1.46 units on a scale | Standard Error 3.63 |
| Control | Taste Liking Ratings of Vegetable Flavors [Mothers]. | Carrot, 4.5 mos | 2.75 units on a scale | Standard Error 3.57 |
| Control | Taste Liking Ratings of Vegetable Flavors [Mothers]. | Mixed Vegetables, 0.5 mos (baseline) | 11.32 units on a scale | Standard Error 5.38 |
| Control | Taste Liking Ratings of Vegetable Flavors [Mothers]. | Beet, 2.5 mos | 9.17 units on a scale | Standard Error 3.73 |
| Control | Taste Liking Ratings of Vegetable Flavors [Mothers]. | Mixed Vegetables, 4.5 mos | 7.87 units on a scale | Standard Error 3.54 |
| Control | Taste Liking Ratings of Vegetable Flavors [Mothers]. | Mixed Vegetables, 2.5 mos | 7.57 units on a scale | Standard Error 3.52 |
| Control | Taste Liking Ratings of Vegetable Flavors [Mothers]. | Apple, 3.5 mos | 19.44 units on a scale | Standard Error 3.75 |
| Control | Taste Liking Ratings of Vegetable Flavors [Mothers]. | Beet, 0.5 mos (baseline) | -3.21 units on a scale | Standard Error 5.72 |
| Control | Taste Liking Ratings of Vegetable Flavors [Mothers]. | Celery, 3.5 mos | -6.69 units on a scale | Standard Error 3.96 |
| Control | Taste Liking Ratings of Vegetable Flavors [Mothers]. | Beet, 3.5 mos | 6.82 units on a scale | Standard Error 4.2 |
| Control | Taste Liking Ratings of Vegetable Flavors [Mothers]. | Apple, 4.5 months | 22.06 units on a scale | Standard Error 2.91 |
| Control | Taste Liking Ratings of Vegetable Flavors [Mothers]. | Carrot, 3.5 mos | 1.56 units on a scale | Standard Error 3.58 |
| Control | Taste Liking Ratings of Vegetable Flavors [Mothers]. | Beet, 1.5 mos | 5.73 units on a scale | Standard Error 4.43 |
| Control | Taste Liking Ratings of Vegetable Flavors [Mothers]. | Celery, 4.5 mos | -2.91 units on a scale | Standard Error 4.02 |
| Control | Taste Liking Ratings of Vegetable Flavors [Mothers]. | Celery, 2.5 mos | -2.88 units on a scale | Standard Error 4.24 |
| Control | Taste Liking Ratings of Vegetable Flavors [Mothers]. | Apple, 2.5 months | 19.39 units on a scale | Standard Error 3.15 |
| Control | Taste Liking Ratings of Vegetable Flavors [Mothers]. | Celery, 1.5 mos | -5.44 units on a scale | Standard Error 3.92 |
| Control | Taste Liking Ratings of Vegetable Flavors [Mothers]. | Mixed Vegetables, 3.5 mos | 10.42 units on a scale | Standard Error 3.75 |
| Control | Taste Liking Ratings of Vegetable Flavors [Mothers]. | Apple, 0.5 mos (Baseline) | 23.72 units on a scale | Standard Error 3.88 |
| Control | Taste Liking Ratings of Vegetable Flavors [Mothers]. | Carrot, 2.5 mos | -2.53 units on a scale | Standard Error 3.39 |
Comparison: Repeated measures ANOVAs were conducted on maternal gLMS ratings with type of juice and time as the within-subject factors and experimental group as the grouping factorp-value: <0.02ANOVA
Primary
Vegetable Flavor Acceptance [Infants' Intake]
Taste testing conducted on infants to determine acceptance of plain cereal, carrot-flavor cereal (exposed flavor for intervention groups) and broccoli-flavored cereal (novel flavor for all groups) after weaning, which occurred at \ 8 months of age. Outcomes included intake (in grams).
Time frame: 6- to 10-month-old weaned infants (3 separate test days )
Population: Some of the infants refused to eat (plain cereal: 1M0.5, N=1; 1M1.5, N=1; 1M2.5, N=4; 3M0.5, N=1; carrot cereal: 1M0.5, N=2; 1M1.5, N=2; 1M2.5, N=4; 3M0.5, N=1; Broccoli: 1M0.5, N=1; 1M1.5, N=1; 1M2.5, N=3; 3M0.5 , N=1) and therefore the number participants analyzed differs from number in each group
| Arm | Measure | Group | Value (MEAN) | Dispersion |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1M0.5 | Vegetable Flavor Acceptance [Infants' Intake] | Intake of plain cereal in grams | 56.8 intake in grams | Standard Error 13.2 |
| 1M0.5 | Vegetable Flavor Acceptance [Infants' Intake] | Intake of broccoli cereal, grams | 41.8 intake in grams | Standard Error 12.7 |
| 1M0.5 | Vegetable Flavor Acceptance [Infants' Intake] | Intake of carrot cereal in grams | 78.2 intake in grams | Standard Error 14.8 |
| 1M1.5 | Vegetable Flavor Acceptance [Infants' Intake] | Intake of carrot cereal in grams | 36.6 intake in grams | Standard Error 10 |
| 1M1.5 | Vegetable Flavor Acceptance [Infants' Intake] | Intake of plain cereal in grams | 42.4 intake in grams | Standard Error 12.4 |
| 1M1.5 | Vegetable Flavor Acceptance [Infants' Intake] | Intake of broccoli cereal, grams | 25.5 intake in grams | Standard Error 8.8 |
| 1M2.5 | Vegetable Flavor Acceptance [Infants' Intake] | Intake of carrot cereal in grams | 57.7 intake in grams | Standard Error 19.9 |
| 1M2.5 | Vegetable Flavor Acceptance [Infants' Intake] | Intake of plain cereal in grams | 29.0 intake in grams | Standard Error 8.5 |
| 1M2.5 | Vegetable Flavor Acceptance [Infants' Intake] | Intake of broccoli cereal, grams | 30.9 intake in grams | Standard Error 10.1 |
| 3M0.5 | Vegetable Flavor Acceptance [Infants' Intake] | Intake of plain cereal in grams | 40.7 intake in grams | Standard Error 8.3 |
| 3M0.5 | Vegetable Flavor Acceptance [Infants' Intake] | Intake of broccoli cereal, grams | 34.4 intake in grams | Standard Error 12.4 |
| 3M0.5 | Vegetable Flavor Acceptance [Infants' Intake] | Intake of carrot cereal in grams | 52.2 intake in grams | Standard Error 9.8 |
| Control | Vegetable Flavor Acceptance [Infants' Intake] | Intake of carrot cereal in grams | 41.1 intake in grams | Standard Error 7.6 |
| Control | Vegetable Flavor Acceptance [Infants' Intake] | Intake of plain cereal in grams | 36.5 intake in grams | Standard Error 6.2 |
| Control | Vegetable Flavor Acceptance [Infants' Intake] | Intake of broccoli cereal, grams | 3.04 intake in grams | Standard Error 6.5 |
Comparison: Separate analyses of variance with a priori contrasts specified were conducted: 1) to determine whether the 1-month exposure groups (1M0.5, 1M1.5, and 1M2.5) differed from the no-exposure control group to test the hypothesis that the timing of exposure affected acceptance; and 2) to determine whether 1 month of exposure differed from 3 months (1M0.5, 3M0.5 groups) and whether these groups differed from the no-exposure control group (duration hypothesis).p-value: 0.02planned comparison
Primary
Vegetable Flavor Acceptance (Infants' Rate of Feeding)
Taste testing conducted on infants to determine acceptance of plain cereal, carrot-flavor cereal (exposed flavor for intervention groups) and broccoli-flavored cereal (novel flavor for all groups) after weaning, which occurred at \ 8 months of age. Outcomes included intake rate of feeding (grams per minute) .
Time frame: 6- to 10-month-old weaned infants (3 separate test days)
Population: Some of the infants refused to eat (plain cereal: 1M0.5, N=1; 1M1.5, N=1; 1M2.5, N=4; 3M0.5, N=1; carrot cereal: 1M0.5, N=2; 1M1.5, N=2; 1M2.5, N=4; 3M0.5, N=1; Broccoli: 1M0.5, N=1; 1M1.5, N=1; 1M2.5, N=3; 3M0.5 , N=1) and therefore the number participants analyzed differs from number in each group.
| Arm | Measure | Group | Value (MEAN) | Dispersion |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1M0.5 | Vegetable Flavor Acceptance (Infants' Rate of Feeding) | Rate of feeding, broccoli cereal | 4.8 grams per minute | Standard Error 0.8 |
| 1M0.5 | Vegetable Flavor Acceptance (Infants' Rate of Feeding) | Rate of feeding, carrot cereal | 7.2 grams per minute | Standard Error 1.1 |
| 1M0.5 | Vegetable Flavor Acceptance (Infants' Rate of Feeding) | Rate of feeding, plain cereal | 6.1 grams per minute | Standard Error 0.9 |
| 1M1.5 | Vegetable Flavor Acceptance (Infants' Rate of Feeding) | Rate of feeding, carrot cereal | 3.6 grams per minute | Standard Error 0.8 |
| 1M1.5 | Vegetable Flavor Acceptance (Infants' Rate of Feeding) | Rate of feeding, plain cereal | 3.9 grams per minute | Standard Error 1.1 |
| 1M1.5 | Vegetable Flavor Acceptance (Infants' Rate of Feeding) | Rate of feeding, broccoli cereal | 2.4 grams per minute | Standard Error 0.9 |
| 1M2.5 | Vegetable Flavor Acceptance (Infants' Rate of Feeding) | Rate of feeding, broccoli cereal | 4.5 grams per minute | Standard Error 1 |
| 1M2.5 | Vegetable Flavor Acceptance (Infants' Rate of Feeding) | Rate of feeding, carrot cereal | 4.8 grams per minute | Standard Error 1.3 |
| 1M2.5 | Vegetable Flavor Acceptance (Infants' Rate of Feeding) | Rate of feeding, plain cereal | 4.0 grams per minute | Standard Error 0.8 |
| 3M0.5 | Vegetable Flavor Acceptance (Infants' Rate of Feeding) | Rate of feeding, carrot cereal | 3.9 grams per minute | Standard Error 0.5 |
| 3M0.5 | Vegetable Flavor Acceptance (Infants' Rate of Feeding) | Rate of feeding, plain cereal | 4.3 grams per minute | Standard Error 0.4 |
| 3M0.5 | Vegetable Flavor Acceptance (Infants' Rate of Feeding) | Rate of feeding, broccoli cereal | 3.8 grams per minute | Standard Error 0.9 |
| Control | Vegetable Flavor Acceptance (Infants' Rate of Feeding) | Rate of feeding, broccoli cereal | 4.1 grams per minute | Standard Error 0.8 |
| Control | Vegetable Flavor Acceptance (Infants' Rate of Feeding) | Rate of feeding, carrot cereal | 3.9 grams per minute | Standard Error 0.6 |
| Control | Vegetable Flavor Acceptance (Infants' Rate of Feeding) | Rate of feeding, plain cereal | 4.9 grams per minute | Standard Error 0.6 |
Comparison: Separate analyses of variance with a priori contrasts specified were conducted: 1) to determine whether the 1-month exposure groups (1M0.5, 1M1.5, and 1M2.5) differed from the no-exposure control group to test the hypothesis that the timing of exposure affected acceptance; and 2) to determine whether 1 month of exposure differed from 3 months (1M0.5, 3M0.5 groups) and whether these groups differed from the no-exposure control group (duration hypothesis).p-value: <0.02planned comparison
Secondary
Growth of Infants
At each visit, infants were weighed and measured to monitor normal growth. These anthropometric data were converted to weight-for-length z-scores (WLZ) using World Health Organization (WHO) growth standards. The Z-score expresses the anthropometric value as a number of standard deviations or Z-scores below or above the reference mean or median value. Normal range for Z score is -2.0 (minimum) to 2.0 (maximum).
Time frame: Once a month from ages 0.5 - 4.5 months, 10.5 months
Population: Number of infants who were weighted and measured to determine Weight for Length Z scores (WLZ) during trial; some dyads did not complete the trial so number of participants analyzed does not always match number enrolled.
| Arm | Measure | Group | Value (MEAN) | Dispersion |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1M0.5 | Growth of Infants | Weight for Length Z: 2.5 months | 0.04 Z score | Standard Error 0.26 |
| 1M0.5 | Growth of Infants | Weight for Length Z: 0.5 months | -0.69 Z score | Standard Error 0.24 |
| 1M0.5 | Growth of Infants | Weight for Length Z: 3.5 months | 0.02 Z score | Standard Error 0.28 |
| 1M0.5 | Growth of Infants | Weight for Length Z: 1.5 months | -0.07 Z score | Standard Error 0.27 |
| 1M0.5 | Growth of Infants | Weight for Length Z, 10.5 months | 0.56 Z score | Standard Error 0.24 |
| 1M0.5 | Growth of Infants | Weight for Length Z: 4.5 months | 0.20 Z score | Standard Error 0.25 |
| 1M1.5 | Growth of Infants | Weight for Length Z: 2.5 months | 0.13 Z score | Standard Error 0.29 |
| 1M1.5 | Growth of Infants | Weight for Length Z: 3.5 months | 0.12 Z score | Standard Error 0.31 |
| 1M1.5 | Growth of Infants | Weight for Length Z, 10.5 months | 0.67 Z score | Standard Error 0.26 |
| 1M1.5 | Growth of Infants | Weight for Length Z: 1.5 months | 0.42 Z score | Standard Error 0.28 |
| 1M1.5 | Growth of Infants | Weight for Length Z: 0.5 months | 0.04 Z score | Standard Error 0.26 |
| 1M1.5 | Growth of Infants | Weight for Length Z: 4.5 months | 0.05 Z score | Standard Error 0.27 |
| 1M2.5 | Growth of Infants | Weight for Length Z: 4.5 months | -0.67 Z score | Standard Error 0.27 |
| 1M2.5 | Growth of Infants | Weight for Length Z, 10.5 months | 0.23 Z score | Standard Error 0.26 |
| 1M2.5 | Growth of Infants | Weight for Length Z: 1.5 months | -0.49 Z score | Standard Error 0.29 |
| 1M2.5 | Growth of Infants | Weight for Length Z: 2.5 months | -0.64 Z score | Standard Error 0.29 |
| 1M2.5 | Growth of Infants | Weight for Length Z: 0.5 months | -0.40 Z score | Standard Error 0.27 |
| 1M2.5 | Growth of Infants | Weight for Length Z: 3.5 months | -0.68 Z score | Standard Error 0.31 |
| 3M0.5 | Growth of Infants | Weight for Length Z: 4.5 months | 0.43 Z score | Standard Error 0.27 |
| 3M0.5 | Growth of Infants | Weight for Length Z: 3.5 months | 0.63 Z score | Standard Error 0.31 |
| 3M0.5 | Growth of Infants | Weight for Length Z: 0.5 months | 0.10 Z score | Standard Error 0.27 |
| 3M0.5 | Growth of Infants | Weight for Length Z: 1.5 months | 0.56 Z score | Standard Error 0.29 |
| 3M0.5 | Growth of Infants | Weight for Length Z, 10.5 months | 0.61 Z score | Standard Error 0.26 |
| 3M0.5 | Growth of Infants | Weight for Length Z: 2.5 months | 0.45 Z score | Standard Error 0.29 |
| Control | Growth of Infants | Weight for Length Z: 2.5 months | 0.15 Z score | Standard Error 0.28 |
| Control | Growth of Infants | Weight for Length Z: 0.5 months | -0.56 Z score | Standard Error 0.26 |
| Control | Growth of Infants | Weight for Length Z: 1.5 months | 0.14 Z score | Standard Error 0.28 |
| Control | Growth of Infants | Weight for Length Z, 10.5 months | 0.54 Z score | Standard Error 0.25 |
| Control | Growth of Infants | Weight for Length Z: 3.5 months | 0.08 Z score | Standard Error 0.3 |
| Control | Growth of Infants | Weight for Length Z: 4.5 months | 0.30 Z score | Standard Error 0.27 |
Comparison: General linear models were conducted on WLZ scores with time as the within-subjects factor and Group as the between-subjects factor to determine there were differences in growth of the infants over time. This was not done to test hypothesis but to monitor growth of infants during course of trial.p-value: <0.05ANOVA
Secondary
Maternal Perceptions
Mothers rated infants' enjoyment of the taste of the cereal (9-point scale); aratings range from 1 (extreme dislike) to 9 (extreme like).
Time frame: 6- to 10-month-old weaned infants (3 separate test days)
Population: Some of the infants refused to eat (plain cereal: 1M0.5, N=1; 1M1.5, N=1; 1M2.5, N=4; 3M0.5, N=1; carrot cereal: 1M0.5, N=2; 1M1.5, N=2; 1M2.5, N=4; 3M0.5, N=1; Broccoli: 1M0.5, N=1; 1M1.5, N=1; 1M2.5, N=3; 3M0.5 , N=1) and therefore the number of maternal ratings analyzed differs from number in each group
| Arm | Measure | Group | Value (MEAN) | Dispersion |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1M0.5 | Maternal Perceptions | Rating of infant enjoyment, plain cerea | 5.4 Score on a scale | Standard Error 0.6 |
| 1M0.5 | Maternal Perceptions | Rating of infant enjoyment, broccoli cere | 4.2 Score on a scale | Standard Error 0.7 |
| 1M0.5 | Maternal Perceptions | Rating of infant enjoyment, carrot cereal | 6.0 Score on a scale | Standard Error 0.7 |
| 1M1.5 | Maternal Perceptions | Rating of infant enjoyment, carrot cereal | 4.7 Score on a scale | Standard Error 0.7 |
| 1M1.5 | Maternal Perceptions | Rating of infant enjoyment, plain cerea | 4.6 Score on a scale | Standard Error 0.8 |
| 1M1.5 | Maternal Perceptions | Rating of infant enjoyment, broccoli cere | 2.9 Score on a scale | Standard Error 0.6 |
| 1M2.5 | Maternal Perceptions | Rating of infant enjoyment, carrot cereal | 7.1 Score on a scale | Standard Error 0.4 |
| 1M2.5 | Maternal Perceptions | Rating of infant enjoyment, plain cerea | 4.1 Score on a scale | Standard Error 0.9 |
| 1M2.5 | Maternal Perceptions | Rating of infant enjoyment, broccoli cere | 4.7 Score on a scale | Standard Error 0.7 |
| 3M0.5 | Maternal Perceptions | Rating of infant enjoyment, plain cerea | 5.2 Score on a scale | Standard Error 0.6 |
| 3M0.5 | Maternal Perceptions | Rating of infant enjoyment, broccoli cere | 4.3 Score on a scale | Standard Error 0.6 |
| 3M0.5 | Maternal Perceptions | Rating of infant enjoyment, carrot cereal | 6.1 Score on a scale | Standard Error 0.5 |
| Control | Maternal Perceptions | Rating of infant enjoyment, carrot cereal | 6.1 Score on a scale | Standard Error 0.7 |
| Control | Maternal Perceptions | Rating of infant enjoyment, plain cerea | 3.9 Score on a scale | Standard Error 0.5 |
| Control | Maternal Perceptions | Rating of infant enjoyment, broccoli cere | 4.1 Score on a scale | Standard Error 0.7 |
Comparison: Separate analyses of variance with a priori contrasts specified 1) to determine whether the 1-month exposure groups (1M0.5, 1M1.5, and 1M2.5) differed from the no-exposure control group to test the hypothesis that the timing of exposure affected acceptance; and 2) to determine whether 1 month of exposure differed from 3 months (1M0.5, 3M0.5 groups) and whether these groups differed from the no-exposure control group (duration hypothesis).p-value: <0.02planned comparison