Cardiovascular Disease, Intestinal Permeability, Low-grade Chronic Inflammation, Obesity, Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus
Conditions
Keywords
Inflammation, Intestinal permeability, Type 2 diabetes mellitus, Cardiovascular disease, Obesity, Sweetened beverages, Sugar, Fructose, Glucose, High-fructose corn syrup
Brief summary
People with chronic low-grade inflammation have a higher risk for certain diseases such as cardiovascular disease or type 2 diabetes. While it is known that obese people are more likely to show signs of low-grade inflammation than lean individuals, it is unclear what causes this inflammation. In the proposed study, the investigators will examine whether the sugar fructose, when consumed in a sweetened beverage, triggers low-grade inflammation in healthy men and women compared with other caloric sweeteners.
Detailed description
The objective of this proposal is to investigate whether fructose-sweetened beverages trigger low-grade systemic inflammation in healthy men and women. Low-grade systemic inflammation, specifically elevated plasma concentrations of C-reactive protein (CRP), is a risk factor for cardiovascular disease (CVD). While it is known that obesity is associated with inflammation, the causes of low-grade inflammation in humans are not well understood. In a pilot study, the consumption of large amounts of fructose-, but not glucose- or aspartame-sweetened beverages potently induced low-grade inflammation in healthy, lean, young men and women in as little as 8 days. The investigators propose to extend these findings by (a) enrolling a greater number of subjects, (b) enrolling obese as well as non-obese subjects, and (c) including a beverage that is sweetened with high fructose corn syrup (HFCS). HFCS is one of the primary sugars consumed in the United States, and a major source of dietary fructose. Our primary specific aim is to assess whether the consumption of fructose- or HFCS-sweetened beverages promotes systemic low-grade inflammation, as measured by plasma concentrations of CRP and IL-6. The investigators hypothesize that plasma CRP and IL-6 concentrations will be elevated after consumption of fructose-containing beverages (fructose and HFCS) when compared to a glucose-sweetened beverage. Our secondary specific aim is to assess whether the consumption of fructose- or HFCS-sweetened beverages lowers plasma adiponectin concentrations. Specifically, the investigators hypothesize that total and high molecular weight (HMW)-adiponectin concentrations in fasting plasma will be lower after subjects have consumed the fructose- or HFCS-sweetened beverages, compared to a glucose-sweetened beverage. The investigators will recruit 12 overweight/obese (BMI between 25.0 and 40 kg/m2) and 12 normal weight (BMI between 20 and 24.9 kg/m2) men and women who are free of chronic inflammatory or metabolic disease. In a double-blind, randomized cross-over design, each subject will complete three 8-day standardized dietary periods that will differ only in the type of sweetened beverage administered. Specifically, subjects will be asked to drink four servings of a beverage each day that is sweetened with glucose, fructose, or HFCS (55% fructose, 45% glucose). All solid food will be provided for each of the three 8-day diet periods, and will be consumed ad libitum. Following each dietary period, the investigators will collect fasting blood to measure markers of systemic inflammation and plasma concentrations of total and HMW-adiponectin. We will also assess changes in adipose tissue inflammation and intestinal permeability as potential mechanisms by which fructose-sweetened beverages may trigger systemic inflammation. This study has the potential to identify a dietary trigger of low-grade inflammation, a likely contributor to CVD and metabolic diseases. The public health impact of this project might be considerable given that the consumption of fructose in the population is pervasive, and is modifiable on an individual as well as a population level.
Interventions
OTHERFructose-sweetened beverages
In addition to consuming a standardized diet, subjects will be asked to consume 4 servings per day of a fructose-sweetened beverage for 8 days. The amount of fructose consumed will be 25% of the subject's estimated daily calorie requirement.
OTHERGlucose-sweetened beverages
In addition to consuming a standardized diet, subjects will be asked to consume 4 servings per day of a glucose-sweetened beverage for 8 days. The amount of glucose consumed will be 25% of the subject's estimated daily calorie requirement.
OTHERHigh-fructose corn syrup-sweetened beverages
In addition to consuming a standardized diet, subjects will be asked to consume 4 servings per day of a high-fructose corn syrup-sweetened beverage for 8 days. The amount of high-fructose corn syrup consumed will be 25% of the subject's estimated daily calorie requirement.
Sponsors
National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (NHLBI)
University of Washington
Fred Hutchinson Cancer Center
Study design
Allocation
RANDOMIZED
Intervention model
CROSSOVER
Primary purpose
BASIC_SCIENCE
Masking
TRIPLE (Subject, Investigator, Outcomes Assessor)
Eligibility
Sex/Gender
ALL
Age
18 Years to 65 Years
Healthy volunteers
Yes
Inclusion criteria
* Age: 18-65 years; * BMI 20-40 kg/m2; * Weight stable to within 10 pounds for 6 months prior to entering the study, and at their lifetime maximum weight (or within 30 pounds of it; excluding pregnancy); * Ability to be admitted for \ 30 minutes on three occasions, and \ 6 hours on three occasions to the FHCRC Prevention Center; * Ability to provide informed written consent; * Willingness to consume only food and beverages provided by the Human Nutrition Laboratory of the FHCRC Prevention Center for three periods of 8 days each.
Exclusion criteria
* Presence or history of chronic inflammatory, autoimmune or metabolic diseases; * Presence of phenylketonuria, hereditary fructose intolerance, fructose malabsorption, or malabsorption syndromes; * Abuse of alcohol (\>2 drinks per day), smoking, or use of recreational drugs; * Current or recent (within three months) intake of medications likely to interfere with study endpoints (insulin, antidiabetics, β-blockers, anabolic steroids, glucocorticosteroids, daily high-dose non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, warfarin, antibiotics, probiotics); * Presence of anemia, recent (within 2 months) history of anemia; * Anyone not willing or able to eat the provided food; * Current or recent (within 12 months) pregnancy or breastfeeding.
Design outcomes
Primary
| Measure | Time frame | Description |
|---|---|---|
| Fasting Plasma C-reactive Protein | Beginning (day 1) and end (day 9) of each diet period. | The concentration of C-reactive protein in fasting plasma will be measured by high-sensitivity assay at the beginning (day 1) and end (day 9) of each 8-day dietary period. |
| Fasting Plasma Interleukin-6 on Day 9 of Each Diet Period | End (day 9) of each diet period | The concentration of interleukin-6 in fasting plasma will be measured by high-sensitivity enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay at the end (day 9) of each 8-day dietary period. |
Secondary
| Measure | Time frame | Description |
|---|---|---|
| Intestinal Permeability, as Assessed by the 5-hour Urinary Lactulose/Mannitol Test | End (day 9) of each diet period. | Intestinal permeability will be assessed on day 9 of each diet period by administering a beverage containing 2 g of mannitol and 5 g of lactulose followed by collecting urine for 5 hours afterwards. Recovery of mannitol and lactulose in urine will be measured by gas chromatography, and will be indicative of the degree of intestinal permeability. |
| Fasting Plasma Zonulin Concentrations | End (day 9) of each diet period. | Zonulin concentrations will be measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay in fasting plasma collected on day 9 of each diet period. Plasma zonulin is a marker of intestinal permeability. |
| Fasting Plasma Lipopolysaccharide-binding Protein (LBP) | End (day 9) of each diet period. | Lipopolysaccharide-binding protein (LBP) will be measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay in fasting plasma collected on day 9 of each diet period. LBP is an acute phase protein secreted by the liver in response to endotoxin (lipopolysaccharide) exposure. |
| Adipose Tissue Inflammation - Tissue Expression of TNF-alpha mRNA | End (day 9) of each diet period. | A subgroup of the study population will be enrolled into an ancillary study that will aim to assess the effects of consuming fructose- vs. high-fructose corn syrup- vs. glucose-sweetened beverages on adipose tissue inflammation. Adipose tissue inflammation will be assessed by whole adipose tissue gene expression analysis of TNF-alpha mRNA. Abdominal subcutaneous adipose tissue samples will be obtained from subjects enrolled into the ancillary study by needle aspiration biopsy on day 9 of each 8-day dietary period. |
| Fasting Plasma Adiponectin | End (day 9) of each diet period. | The concentration of adiponectin in fasting plasma will be measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay at the end (day 9) of each 8-day dietary period. |
| Adipose Tissue Inflammation - Tissue Expression of IL-6 mRNA | End (day 9) of each diet period. | A subgroup of the study population will be enrolled into an ancillary study that will aim to assess the effects of consuming fructose- vs. high-fructose corn syrup- vs. glucose-sweetened beverages on adipose tissue inflammation. Adipose tissue inflammation will be assessed by whole adipose tissue gene expression analysis of IL-6 mRNA. Abdominal subcutaneous adipose tissue samples will be obtained from subjects enrolled into the ancillary study by needle aspiration biopsy on day 9 of each 8-day dietary period. |
| Adipose Tissue Inflammation - Tissue Expression of IL-10 mRNA | End (day 9) of each diet period. | A subgroup of the study population will be enrolled into an ancillary study that will aim to assess the effects of consuming fructose- vs. high-fructose corn syrup- vs. glucose-sweetened beverages on adipose tissue inflammation. Adipose tissue inflammation will be assessed by whole adipose tissue gene expression analysis of IL-10 mRNA. Abdominal subcutaneous adipose tissue samples will be obtained from subjects enrolled into the ancillary study by needle aspiration biopsy on day 9 of each 8-day dietary period. |
| Adipose Tissue Inflammation - Tissue Expression of CCL2 mRNA | End (day 9) of each diet period. | A subgroup of the study population will be enrolled into an ancillary study that will aim to assess the effects of consuming fructose- vs. high-fructose corn syrup- vs. glucose-sweetened beverages on adipose tissue inflammation. Adipose tissue inflammation will be assessed by whole adipose tissue gene expression analysis of CCL2 mRNA. Abdominal subcutaneous adipose tissue samples will be obtained from subjects enrolled into the ancillary study by needle aspiration biopsy on day 9 of each 8-day dietary period. |
| Adipose Tissue Inflammation - Tissue Expression of IFN-gamma mRNA | End (day 9) of each diet period. | A subgroup of the study population will be enrolled into an ancillary study that will aim to assess the effects of consuming fructose- vs. high-fructose corn syrup- vs. glucose-sweetened beverages on adipose tissue inflammation. Adipose tissue inflammation will be assessed by whole adipose tissue gene expression analysis of IFN-gamma mRNA. Abdominal subcutaneous adipose tissue samples will be obtained from subjects enrolled into the ancillary study by needle aspiration biopsy on day 9 of each 8-day dietary period. |
| Adipose Tissue Inflammation - Tissue Expression of IL-1beta mRNA | End (day 9) of each diet period. | A subgroup of the study population will be enrolled into an ancillary study that will aim to assess the effects of consuming fructose- vs. high-fructose corn syrup- vs. glucose-sweetened beverages on adipose tissue inflammation. Adipose tissue inflammation will be assessed by whole adipose tissue gene expression analysis of IL-1beta mRNA. Abdominal subcutaneous adipose tissue samples will be obtained from subjects enrolled into the ancillary study by needle aspiration biopsy on day 9 of each 8-day dietary period. |
| Mean Daily Calorie Intake | The mean daily calorie intake during each of the 8-day diet periods will be calculated. | Mean daily calorie intake will be assessed during each of the three 8-day diet periods. All foods will be provided to the subjects in excess of what they are estimated to require, and calorie intake will be assessed by subtracting returned foods from foods administered. |
Countries
United States
Participant flow
Recruitment details
63 volunteers who responded to newspaper advertisements and fliers posted in the Seattle area were screened for eligibility between December 2011 and December 2013.
Pre-assignment details
Of those 63 volunteers screened, 38 did not meet inclusion criteria and 0 declined to participate. 25 subjects randomized
Participants by arm
| Arm | Count |
|---|---|
| Study Subjects All six treatment orders combined | 24 |
| Total | 24 |
Withdrawals & dropouts
| Period | Reason | FG000 | FG001 | FG002 | FG003 | FG004 | FG005 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Overall Study | Protocol Violation | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 |
Baseline characteristics
| Characteristic | Study Subjects |
|---|---|
| Age, Continuous | 36 years STANDARD_DEVIATION 12 |
| BMI | 27.4 kg/m^2 STANDARD_DEVIATION 4.8 |
| Estimated total calorie requirement | 2560 kcal/d STANDARD_DEVIATION 370 |
| Fasting glucose | 92 mg/dL STANDARD_DEVIATION 10 |
| Physical activity | 68.7 MET-hr/wk STANDARD_DEVIATION 45.9 |
| Region of Enrollment United States | 24 Participants |
| Sex: Female, Male Female | 9 Participants |
| Sex: Female, Male Male | 15 Participants |
Adverse events
| Event type | EG000 affected / at risk | EG001 affected / at risk | EG002 affected / at risk |
|---|---|---|---|
| deaths Total, all-cause mortality | — / — | — / — | — / — |
| other Total, other adverse events | 2 / 24 | 1 / 25 | 0 / 24 |
| serious Total, serious adverse events | 0 / 24 | 0 / 25 | 0 / 24 |
Outcome results
Primary
Fasting Plasma C-reactive Protein
The concentration of C-reactive protein in fasting plasma will be measured by high-sensitivity assay at the beginning (day 1) and end (day 9) of each 8-day dietary period.
Time frame: Beginning (day 1) and end (day 9) of each diet period.
Population: All completed participants combined in per protocol analysis
| Arm | Measure | Value (MEDIAN) |
|---|---|---|
| Fructose Arm - Day 1 | Fasting Plasma C-reactive Protein | 0.91 mg/L |
| Fructose Arm - Day 9 | Fasting Plasma C-reactive Protein | 1.07 mg/L |
| Glucose Arm - Day 1 | Fasting Plasma C-reactive Protein | 1.67 mg/L |
| Glucose Arm - Day 9 | Fasting Plasma C-reactive Protein | 1.09 mg/L |
| HFCS Arm - Day 1 | Fasting Plasma C-reactive Protein | 1.18 mg/L |
| HFCS Arm - Day 9 | Fasting Plasma C-reactive Protein | 0.84 mg/L |
Comparison: RM-ANOVAp-value: 0.403RM-ANOVA
Primary
Fasting Plasma Interleukin-6 on Day 9 of Each Diet Period
The concentration of interleukin-6 in fasting plasma will be measured by high-sensitivity enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay at the end (day 9) of each 8-day dietary period.
Time frame: End (day 9) of each diet period
Population: All completed participants combined in per protocol analysis
| Arm | Measure | Value (MEDIAN) |
|---|---|---|
| Fructose Arm - Day 1 | Fasting Plasma Interleukin-6 on Day 9 of Each Diet Period | 0.97 pg/mL |
| Fructose Arm - Day 9 | Fasting Plasma Interleukin-6 on Day 9 of Each Diet Period | 1.14 pg/mL |
| Glucose Arm - Day 1 | Fasting Plasma Interleukin-6 on Day 9 of Each Diet Period | 0.96 pg/mL |
p-value: 0.933RM-ANOVA
Secondary
Adipose Tissue Inflammation - Tissue Expression of CCL2 mRNA
A subgroup of the study population will be enrolled into an ancillary study that will aim to assess the effects of consuming fructose- vs. high-fructose corn syrup- vs. glucose-sweetened beverages on adipose tissue inflammation. Adipose tissue inflammation will be assessed by whole adipose tissue gene expression analysis of CCL2 mRNA. Abdominal subcutaneous adipose tissue samples will be obtained from subjects enrolled into the ancillary study by needle aspiration biopsy on day 9 of each 8-day dietary period.
Time frame: End (day 9) of each diet period.
Population: A subset of the study population opted to undergo voluntary adipose tissue biopsy
| Arm | Measure | Value (MEDIAN) |
|---|---|---|
| Fructose Arm - Day 1 | Adipose Tissue Inflammation - Tissue Expression of CCL2 mRNA | 31.5 copy number/ng total RNA |
| Fructose Arm - Day 9 | Adipose Tissue Inflammation - Tissue Expression of CCL2 mRNA | 27.2 copy number/ng total RNA |
| Glucose Arm - Day 1 | Adipose Tissue Inflammation - Tissue Expression of CCL2 mRNA | 25.3 copy number/ng total RNA |
p-value: 0.056RM-ANOVA
Secondary
Adipose Tissue Inflammation - Tissue Expression of IFN-gamma mRNA
A subgroup of the study population will be enrolled into an ancillary study that will aim to assess the effects of consuming fructose- vs. high-fructose corn syrup- vs. glucose-sweetened beverages on adipose tissue inflammation. Adipose tissue inflammation will be assessed by whole adipose tissue gene expression analysis of IFN-gamma mRNA. Abdominal subcutaneous adipose tissue samples will be obtained from subjects enrolled into the ancillary study by needle aspiration biopsy on day 9 of each 8-day dietary period.
Time frame: End (day 9) of each diet period.
Population: A subset of the study population opted to undergo voluntary adipose tissue biopsy
| Arm | Measure | Value (MEDIAN) |
|---|---|---|
| Fructose Arm - Day 1 | Adipose Tissue Inflammation - Tissue Expression of IFN-gamma mRNA | 0.23 copy number/ng total RNA |
| Fructose Arm - Day 9 | Adipose Tissue Inflammation - Tissue Expression of IFN-gamma mRNA | 0.20 copy number/ng total RNA |
| Glucose Arm - Day 1 | Adipose Tissue Inflammation - Tissue Expression of IFN-gamma mRNA | 0.23 copy number/ng total RNA |
p-value: 0.52RM-ANOVA
Secondary
Adipose Tissue Inflammation - Tissue Expression of IL-10 mRNA
A subgroup of the study population will be enrolled into an ancillary study that will aim to assess the effects of consuming fructose- vs. high-fructose corn syrup- vs. glucose-sweetened beverages on adipose tissue inflammation. Adipose tissue inflammation will be assessed by whole adipose tissue gene expression analysis of IL-10 mRNA. Abdominal subcutaneous adipose tissue samples will be obtained from subjects enrolled into the ancillary study by needle aspiration biopsy on day 9 of each 8-day dietary period.
Time frame: End (day 9) of each diet period.
Population: A subset of the study population opted to undergo voluntary adipose tissue biopsy
| Arm | Measure | Value (MEDIAN) |
|---|---|---|
| Fructose Arm - Day 1 | Adipose Tissue Inflammation - Tissue Expression of IL-10 mRNA | 0.66 copy number/ng total RNA |
| Fructose Arm - Day 9 | Adipose Tissue Inflammation - Tissue Expression of IL-10 mRNA | 0.90 copy number/ng total RNA |
| Glucose Arm - Day 1 | Adipose Tissue Inflammation - Tissue Expression of IL-10 mRNA | 0.95 copy number/ng total RNA |
p-value: 0.149RM-ANOVA
Secondary
Adipose Tissue Inflammation - Tissue Expression of IL-1beta mRNA
A subgroup of the study population will be enrolled into an ancillary study that will aim to assess the effects of consuming fructose- vs. high-fructose corn syrup- vs. glucose-sweetened beverages on adipose tissue inflammation. Adipose tissue inflammation will be assessed by whole adipose tissue gene expression analysis of IL-1beta mRNA. Abdominal subcutaneous adipose tissue samples will be obtained from subjects enrolled into the ancillary study by needle aspiration biopsy on day 9 of each 8-day dietary period.
Time frame: End (day 9) of each diet period.
Population: A subset of the study population opted to undergo voluntary adipose tissue biopsy
| Arm | Measure | Value (MEDIAN) |
|---|---|---|
| Fructose Arm - Day 1 | Adipose Tissue Inflammation - Tissue Expression of IL-1beta mRNA | 0.41 copy number/ng total RNA |
| Fructose Arm - Day 9 | Adipose Tissue Inflammation - Tissue Expression of IL-1beta mRNA | 0.33 copy number/ng total RNA |
| Glucose Arm - Day 1 | Adipose Tissue Inflammation - Tissue Expression of IL-1beta mRNA | 0.32 copy number/ng total RNA |
p-value: 0.596RM-ANOVA
Secondary
Adipose Tissue Inflammation - Tissue Expression of IL-6 mRNA
A subgroup of the study population will be enrolled into an ancillary study that will aim to assess the effects of consuming fructose- vs. high-fructose corn syrup- vs. glucose-sweetened beverages on adipose tissue inflammation. Adipose tissue inflammation will be assessed by whole adipose tissue gene expression analysis of IL-6 mRNA. Abdominal subcutaneous adipose tissue samples will be obtained from subjects enrolled into the ancillary study by needle aspiration biopsy on day 9 of each 8-day dietary period.
Time frame: End (day 9) of each diet period.
Population: A subset of the study population opted to undergo voluntary adipose tissue biopsy
| Arm | Measure | Value (MEDIAN) |
|---|---|---|
| Fructose Arm - Day 1 | Adipose Tissue Inflammation - Tissue Expression of IL-6 mRNA | 0.53 copy number/ng total RNA |
| Fructose Arm - Day 9 | Adipose Tissue Inflammation - Tissue Expression of IL-6 mRNA | 0.49 copy number/ng total RNA |
| Glucose Arm - Day 1 | Adipose Tissue Inflammation - Tissue Expression of IL-6 mRNA | 0.51 copy number/ng total RNA |
p-value: 0.492RM-ANOVA
Secondary
Adipose Tissue Inflammation - Tissue Expression of TNF-alpha mRNA
A subgroup of the study population will be enrolled into an ancillary study that will aim to assess the effects of consuming fructose- vs. high-fructose corn syrup- vs. glucose-sweetened beverages on adipose tissue inflammation. Adipose tissue inflammation will be assessed by whole adipose tissue gene expression analysis of TNF-alpha mRNA. Abdominal subcutaneous adipose tissue samples will be obtained from subjects enrolled into the ancillary study by needle aspiration biopsy on day 9 of each 8-day dietary period.
Time frame: End (day 9) of each diet period.
Population: A subset of the study population opted to undergo voluntary adipose tissue biopsy
| Arm | Measure | Value (MEAN) | Dispersion |
|---|---|---|---|
| Fructose Arm - Day 1 | Adipose Tissue Inflammation - Tissue Expression of TNF-alpha mRNA | 1.40 copy number/ng total RNA | Standard Deviation 0.58 |
| Fructose Arm - Day 9 | Adipose Tissue Inflammation - Tissue Expression of TNF-alpha mRNA | 1.44 copy number/ng total RNA | Standard Deviation 0.89 |
| Glucose Arm - Day 1 | Adipose Tissue Inflammation - Tissue Expression of TNF-alpha mRNA | 1.24 copy number/ng total RNA | Standard Deviation 0.67 |
p-value: 0.476RM-ANOVA
Secondary
Fasting Plasma Adiponectin
The concentration of adiponectin in fasting plasma will be measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay at the end (day 9) of each 8-day dietary period.
Time frame: End (day 9) of each diet period.
Population: All completed participants combined in per protocol analysis
| Arm | Measure | Value (MEAN) | Dispersion |
|---|---|---|---|
| Fructose Arm - Day 1 | Fasting Plasma Adiponectin | 4635 ng/mL | Standard Deviation 2545 |
| Fructose Arm - Day 9 | Fasting Plasma Adiponectin | 4353 ng/mL | Standard Deviation 2198 |
| Glucose Arm - Day 1 | Fasting Plasma Adiponectin | 4514 ng/mL | Standard Deviation 2195 |
p-value: 0.196RM-ANOVA
Secondary
Fasting Plasma Lipopolysaccharide-binding Protein (LBP)
Lipopolysaccharide-binding protein (LBP) will be measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay in fasting plasma collected on day 9 of each diet period. LBP is an acute phase protein secreted by the liver in response to endotoxin (lipopolysaccharide) exposure.
Time frame: End (day 9) of each diet period.
Population: All completed participants combined for protocol analysis
| Arm | Measure | Value (MEDIAN) |
|---|---|---|
| Fructose Arm - Day 1 | Fasting Plasma Lipopolysaccharide-binding Protein (LBP) | 27.7 ug/mL |
| Fructose Arm - Day 9 | Fasting Plasma Lipopolysaccharide-binding Protein (LBP) | 26.1 ug/mL |
| Glucose Arm - Day 1 | Fasting Plasma Lipopolysaccharide-binding Protein (LBP) | 29.8 ug/mL |
p-value: 0.387RM-ANOVA
Secondary
Fasting Plasma Zonulin Concentrations
Zonulin concentrations will be measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay in fasting plasma collected on day 9 of each diet period. Plasma zonulin is a marker of intestinal permeability.
Time frame: End (day 9) of each diet period.
Population: All completed participants combined in per protocol analysis
| Arm | Measure | Value (MEAN) | Dispersion |
|---|---|---|---|
| Fructose Arm - Day 1 | Fasting Plasma Zonulin Concentrations | 12.78 ng/mL | Standard Deviation 1.54 |
| Fructose Arm - Day 9 | Fasting Plasma Zonulin Concentrations | 12.69 ng/mL | Standard Deviation 1.7 |
| Glucose Arm - Day 1 | Fasting Plasma Zonulin Concentrations | 12.92 ng/mL | Standard Deviation 1.49 |
p-value: 0.366RM-ANOVA
Secondary
Intestinal Permeability, as Assessed by the 5-hour Urinary Lactulose/Mannitol Test
Intestinal permeability will be assessed on day 9 of each diet period by administering a beverage containing 2 g of mannitol and 5 g of lactulose followed by collecting urine for 5 hours afterwards. Recovery of mannitol and lactulose in urine will be measured by gas chromatography, and will be indicative of the degree of intestinal permeability.
Time frame: End (day 9) of each diet period.
Population: All completed participants combined in per protocol analysis
| Arm | Measure | Value (MEDIAN) |
|---|---|---|
| Fructose Arm - Day 1 | Intestinal Permeability, as Assessed by the 5-hour Urinary Lactulose/Mannitol Test | 0.047 ratio |
| Fructose Arm - Day 9 | Intestinal Permeability, as Assessed by the 5-hour Urinary Lactulose/Mannitol Test | 0.043 ratio |
| Glucose Arm - Day 1 | Intestinal Permeability, as Assessed by the 5-hour Urinary Lactulose/Mannitol Test | 0.031 ratio |
p-value: <0.001Repeated measures ANOVA
Secondary
Mean Daily Calorie Intake
Mean daily calorie intake will be assessed during each of the three 8-day diet periods. All foods will be provided to the subjects in excess of what they are estimated to require, and calorie intake will be assessed by subtracting returned foods from foods administered.
Time frame: The mean daily calorie intake during each of the 8-day diet periods will be calculated.
Population: All completed participants combined in per protocol analysis
| Arm | Measure | Value (MEAN) | Dispersion |
|---|---|---|---|
| Fructose Arm - Day 1 | Mean Daily Calorie Intake | 2970 kcal/d | Standard Deviation 482 |
| Fructose Arm - Day 9 | Mean Daily Calorie Intake | 2940 kcal/d | Standard Deviation 460 |
| Glucose Arm - Day 1 | Mean Daily Calorie Intake | 2950 kcal/d | Standard Deviation 535 |
p-value: 0.88RM-ANOVA