Physical, Cognitive and Behavioral Outcomes, and Physical Activity Interventions in Children with Neurodevelopmental Disorders and Typical Developing Children

Approximately 80 children (at least 20 children in each group), aged 4-12 years, will be recruited to participate in the study. All children with Neurodevelopmental Disorders (i.e., attention deficit hyperactivity disorder [ADHD] and autism spectrum disorder [ASD]) will be matched by age and ability, and then randomly selected to participate in either a 3-month (80 minutes per day, two days a week for 12 weeks) motor skill intervention, a 3-month yoga intervention, or a 3-month taewondo intervention. A group of typically development children will receive no intervention and serve as a control. Motor skill intervention a) The performance criteria of each skill in the TGMD-3 Examiner’s Manual will be used. The skills that will be taught including balance, running, underhand rolling and throwing, galloping and leaping, sliding, jumping and hopping, stationary dribbling/bouncing, overhand throwing, catching, hopping, kicking, and striking a stationary ball. b) Each session comprised six activities, namely warm-up (10 min), review of previously learned skills (15 min), instruction and practice of a new skill [Level I (15 min)], progression of a new skill [Level II (15 min)], progression of a new skill [Level III (15 min)], and cool-down (10 min). c) All sessions will be run by the primary investigator with assistance from trained research assistants. d) The intervention will be run 2 days/week, 80 min/day, for a total of 32 hr of direct instruction over the 12-week intervention. e) The intervention will be consisted of 24 sessions (each lasting 80 min) that will be conducted twice a week over 12 weeks of the 2023–24 school year. f) All intervention sessions will be conducted in a gymnasium in a large and public urban university in South Taiwan. g) Each session will be concluded with an opportunity to play with kids’ favorite activities as a reward. Yoga intervention a) Twelve structured yoga modules will be developed for this study based on the International Kids Yoga Alliance. b) The structured yoga modules followed a sequence of five components: (a) chanting (10 min), (b) preparatory practices (20 min), (c) yoga postures or asanas (20 min), (d) breathing practices including breathing exercises and pranayama (20 min), and (e) relaxation (10 min). c) All sessions will be run by the yoga teacher with assistance from the primary investigator. The yoga teacher will have relevant teaching experience with children with disabilities. d) The intervention will be run 2 days/week, 80 min/day, for a total of 32 hr of direct instruction over the 12-week intervention. e) The intervention will be consisted of 24 sessions (each lasting 80 min) that will be conducted twice a week over 12 weeks of the 2023–24 school year. f) All intervention sessions will be conducted in a gymnasium in a large and public urban university in South Taiwan. g) Each session will be concluded with an opportunity to play with kids’ favorite activities as a reward. Taewondo intervention a) The Taewondo training protocol that suits the participants’ motor abilities will be produced by a skilled Taewondo instructor. b) The Taewondo intervention program consisted of 10 min of warm-up, 30 min of block, punching, and kicking, 30 min of Poomse, and 10 min of cool-down. c) All sessions will be run by qualified Taewondo instructor with assistance from the primary investigator. The Taewondo instructor will have relevant teaching experience with children with disabilities. d) The intervention will be run 2 days/week, 80 min/day, for a total of 32 hr of direct instruction over the 12-week intervention. e) The intervention will be consisted of 24 sessions (each lasting 80 min) that will be conducted twice a week over 12 weeks of the 2023–24 school year. f) All intervention sessions will be conducted in a gymnasium in a large and public urban university in South Taiwan. g) Each session will be concluded with an opportunity to play with kids’ favorite activities as a reward.